Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Know Thyself and Become What You Are: A Eudaimonic Approach to Psychological Well-Being

  • Published:
Journal of Happiness Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In an effort to strengthen conceptual foundations of eudaimonic well-being, key messages from Aristotle’s Nichomacean Ethics are revisited. Also examined are ideas about positive human functioning from existential and utilitarian philosophy as well as clinical, developmental, and humanistic psychology. How these perspectives were integrated to create a multidimensional model of psychological well-being [Ryff, C.D.: 1989a, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 57(6), pp. 1069–1081] is described, and empirical evidence supporting the factorial validity of the model is briefly noted. Life course and socioeconomic correlates of well-being are examined to underscore the point that opportunities for eudaimonic well-being are not equally distributed. Biological correlates (cardiovascular, neuroendocrine, immune) of psychological well-being are also briefly noted as they suggest possible health benefits associated with living a life rich in purpose and meaning, continued growth, and quality ties to others. We conclude with future challenges in carrying the eudaimonic vision forward.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adler N.E., Marmot M.G., McEwen B.S., Stewart J. 1999, Socioeconomic Status and Health in Industrialized Nations: Social, Psychological, and Biological Pathways; Vol. 896. New York Academy of Sciences, New York, NY

    Google Scholar 

  • Allport G.W. 1961, Pattern and Growth in Personality. Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, New York, NY

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrews F.M., Withey S.B. 1976, Social Indicators of Well-Being: America’s Perception of Life Quality. Plenum Press, New York, NY

    Google Scholar 

  • Aristotle: 1925, The Nicomachean Ethics (Oxford University Press, New York, NY) D. Ross, Trans

  • Becker, L.C.: 1992, ‚Good lives: Prolegomena’, Social Philosophy and Policy 9, pp. 15–37

  • Bradburn N.M. 1969, The Structure of Psychological Well-Being. Aldin, Chicago, IL

    Google Scholar 

  • Bryant F.B., Veroff J. 1982, The structure of psychological well-being: A sociohistorical analysis Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 43: 653–673

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bühler C. 1935, The curve of life as studied in biographies Journal of Applied Psychology 43: 653–673

    Google Scholar 

  • Bühler C., Massarik F. (eds). 1968, The Course of Human Life. Springer, New York, NY

    Google Scholar 

  • Carr D.S. 1997, The fulfillment of career dreams at midlife: Does it matter for women’s mental health? Journal of Health and Social Behavior 38: 331–344

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cheng S.-T., Chang A.C.M. 2005, Measuring psychological well-being in the Chinese Personality and Individual Differences 38(6): 1307–1316

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clarke P.J., Marshall V.W., Ryff C.D., Wheaton B. 2001, Measuring psychological well-being in the Canadian Study of Health and Aging International Psychogeriatrics 13(Suppl 1): 79–90

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener E. 1984, Subjective well-being Psychological Bulletin 95: 542–575

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener E., Suh E.M. 2000, Measuring subjective well-being to compare the quality of life of cultures In: Diener E., Suh M. (eds) Culture and Subjective Well-Being. The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, pp. 3–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Dowd J.J. 1990, Ever since Durkheim: The socialization of human development Human Development 33: 138–159

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Erikson E.H. 1959, Identity and the life cycle: Selected papers Psychological Issues 1: 1–171

    Google Scholar 

  • Frankl, V.E. and I. Lasch: 1992, Man’s Search for Meaning: An Introduction to Logotherapy (Beacon Press, Boston, MA). Original published 1959

  • Friedman, E.M., M. Hayney, G.D. Love, H. Urry, M.A. Rosenkranz, R.J. Davidson, B.H. Singer and C.D. Ryff: 2005, ‚Plasma interluekin-6 in aging women: Links to positive social relationships and sleep quality’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102, pp. 18757–18762

  • Greenfield E.A., Marks N. 2004, Formal volunteering as a protective factor for older adults’ psychological well-being Journals of Gerontology: Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 59B(5): S258–S264

    Google Scholar 

  • Gross J.J., John O.P. 2003, Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 85(2): 348–362

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heidrich S.M., Ryff C.D. 1993, The role of social comparison processes in the psychological adaptation of elderly adults Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences 48: P127–P136

    Google Scholar 

  • Helson R., Srivastava S. 2001, Three paths of adult development: Conservers, seekers, and achievers Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 80(6): 995–1010

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hemenover S.H. 2003, The good, the bad, and the healthy: Impacts of emotional disclosure of trauma on resilient self-concept and psychological distress Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 29(10): 1236–1244

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jahoda M. 1958, Current Concepts of Positive Mental Health. Basic Books, New York, NY

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, I.: 1997, Lecture on Aristotle’s Nicomachaean Ethics [Electronic version], from http://www.mala.bc.ca/∼johnstoi/

  • Jung, C.G. 1933, Modern Man in Search of a Soul; W.S. Dell & C.F. Baynes, Trans. (Harcourt, Brace & World, New York, NY)

  • Kirby S.E., Coleman P.G., Daley D. 2004, Spirituality and well-being in frail and nonfrail older adults. Journals of Gerontology: Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 59B(3): P123–P129

    Google Scholar 

  • Kitayama S., Markus H.R. 2000, The pursuit of happiness and the realization of sympathy: Cultural patterns of self, social relations, and well-being. In: Diener E., Suh E.M. (eds) Culture and Subjective Well-Being. The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, pp. 113–161

    Google Scholar 

  • Kling K.C., Ryff C.D., Essex M.J. 1997a, Adaptive changes in the self-concept during a life transition Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 23(9): 981–990

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kling K.C., Seltzer M.M., Ryff C.D. 1997b, Distinctive late-life challenges: Implications for coping and well-being Psychology and Aging 12(2): 288–295

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kwan C.M.L., Love G.D., Ryff C.D., Essex M.J. 2003, The role of self-enhancing evaluations in a successful life transition Psychology and Aging 18(1): 3–12

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lopes P.N., Salovey P., Straus R. 2003, Emotional intelligence, personality, and the perceived quality of social relationships Personality and Individual Differences 35: 641–658

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maier E.H., Lachman M.E. 2000, Consequences of early parental loss and separation for health and well-being in midlife International Journal of Behavioral Development 24(2): 183–189

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marks N.F. 1998, Does it hurt to care? Caregiving, work-family conflict, and midlife well-being Journal of Marriage and The Family 60(4): 951–966

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marks N.F., Lambert J.D. 1998, Marital status continuity and change among young and midlife adults: Longitudinal effects on psychological well-being Journal of Family Issues 19: 652–686

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Markus H.R., Ryff C.D., Curhan K.B., Palmersheim K.A. 2004, In their own words: Well-being at midlife among high school-educated and college-educated adults. In: Brim O.G., Ryff C.D., Kessler R.C. (eds) How Healthy are We?: A National Study of Well-Being at Midlife. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, pp. 273–319

    Google Scholar 

  • Marmot M., Ryff C.D., Bumpass L.L., Shipley M., Marks N.F. 1997, Social inequalities in health: Next questions and converging evidence Social Science and Medicine 44(6): 901–910

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marmot M.G., Fuhrer R., Ettner S.L., Marks N.F., Bumpass L.L., Ryff C.D 1998, Contribution of psychosocial factors to socioeconomic differences in health Milbank Quarterly 76(3): 403–448

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maslow A.H. 1968, Toward a Psychology of Being. 2nd ed. Van Nostrand, New York, NY

    Google Scholar 

  • Mill, J.S. 1989, Autobiography (Penguin, London, England). Original work published 1893

  • Neugarten B.L. 1968, The awareness of middle age. In: Neugarten B.L. (eds) Middle Age and Aging. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, pp. 93–98

    Google Scholar 

  • Neugarten B.L. 1973, Personality change in late life: A developmental perspective. In: Eisodorfer C., Lawton M.P. (eds) The Pychology of Adult Development and Aging. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, pp. 311–335

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Norton D.L. 1976, Personal Destinies: A Philosophy of Ethical Individualism. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ

    Google Scholar 

  • Riediger M., Freund A.M. 2004, Interference and facilitation among personal goals: Differential associations with subjective well-being and persistent goal pursuit Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 30(12): 1511–1523

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riley M.W., Kahn R.L., Foner A. 1994, Age and Structural Lag. Wiley, New York, NY

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogers C.R. 1962, The interpersonal relationship: The core of guidance Harvard Educational Review 32(4): 416–429

    Google Scholar 

  • Russell, B. 1958, The Conquest of Happiness (Liveright, New York, NY). Original work published 1930

  • Ryan R.M., Deci E.L. 2001, On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being Annual Review of Psychology 52: 141–166

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryff C.D. 1982, Successful aging: A developmental approach The Gerontologist, 22: 209–214

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryff C.D. 1985, Adult personality development and the motivation for personal growth. In: Kleiber D., Maehr M. (eds) Advances in Motivation and Achievement: Vol. 4, Motivation and Adulthood. JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, pp. 55–92

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryff C.D. 1989a, Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 57(6): 1069–1081

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryff C.D. 1989b, Beyond Ponce de Leon and life satisfaction: New directions in quest of successful aging. International Journal of Behavioral Development 12: 35–55

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryff C.D. 1991, Possible selves in adulthood and old age: A tale of shifting horizons. Psychology and Aging 6(2): 286–295

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryff C.D., Keyes C.L.M. 1995, The structure of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69(4): 719–727

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryff C.D. Keyes C.L.M., Hughes D.L. 2003, Status inequalities, perceived discrimination, and eudaimonic well-being: Do the challenges of minority life hone purpose and growth? Journal of Health and Social Behavior 44(3) 275–291

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryff C.D., Singer B.H. 1998, The contours of positive human health Psychological Inquiry 9(1): 1–28

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryff, C.D. and B.H. Singer: in press, Best news yet for the six-factor model of well-being. Social Science Research

  • Ryff C.D., Singer B.H., Love G.D. 2004a, Positive health: Connecting well-being with biology Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 359: 1383–1394

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryff C.D., Singer B.H., Palmersheim K.A. 2004b, Social inequalities in health and well-being: The role of relational and religious protective factors. In: Brim O.G., Ryff C.D., Kessler R.C. (Eds) How Healthy are We?: A National Study of Well-Being at Midlife. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, pp. 90–123

    Google Scholar 

  • Sartre J.P. 1956, Being and Nothingness. Philosophical Library, Oxford, England

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmutte P.S., Ryff C.D. 1997, Personality and well-being: Reexamining methods and meanings Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 73(3): 549–559

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sheldon K.M. 2005, Positive value change during college: Normative trends and individual differences Journal of Research in Personality 39(2): 209–223

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singer B.H., Ryff C.D. 1997, Racial and ethnic equalities in health: Environmental, psychosocial, and physiological pathways. In: Devlin B., Feinberg S.E., Resnick D., Roeder K. (eds) Intelligence, Genes, and Success: Scientists Respond to the Bell Curve. Springer-Verlag Publications, New York, NY, pp. 89–122

    Google Scholar 

  • Singer B.H., Ryff C.D. 1999, Hierarchies of life histories and associated health risks. In: Adler N.E., Marmot M. (eds) Socioeconomic Status and Health in Industrial Nations: Social, Psychological, and Biological Pathways 896. New York Academy of Sciences, New York, NY, pp. 96–115

    Google Scholar 

  • Singer B.H., Ryff C.D., Carr D., Magee W.J. 1998, Life histories and mental health: A person-centered strategy. In: Raftery A. (ed.) Sociological Methodology. American Sociological Association, Washington, DC, pp. 1–51

    Google Scholar 

  • Singer B.H., Ryff C.D. 2001, New Horizons in Health: An Integrative Approach. National Academy Press, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Springer, K.W. and R.M. Hauser: in press, ‚An assessment of the construct validity of Ryff’s scales of psychological well-being: Method, mode, and measurement effects’, Social Science Research

  • Smider N.A., Essex M.J., Ryff C.D. 1996, Adaptation to community relocation: The interactive influence of psychological resources and contextual factors Psychology and Aging 11(2): 362–372

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor S.E., Lerner J.S., Sherman D.K., Sage R.M., McDowell N.K. 2003a, Are self-enhancing cognitions associated with healthy or unhealthy biological profiles? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 85: 605–615

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor S.E., Lerner J.S., Sherman D.K., Sage R.M., McDowell N.K. 2003b, Portrait of the self-enhancer: Well adjusted and well liked or maladjusted and friendless? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84(1): 165–176

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tweed S., Ryff C.D. 1991, Adult children of alcoholics: Profiles of wellness and distress Journal of Studies on Alcohol 52: 133–141

    Google Scholar 

  • Urry H.L., Nitschke J.B., Dolski I., Jackson D.C., Dalton K.M., Mueller C.J. et al 2004, Making a life worth living: Neural correlates of well-being Psychological Science 15(6): 367–372

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Dierendonck D. 2004, The construct validity of Ryff’s Scales of Psychological Well-Being and its extension with spiritual well-being Personality and Individual Differences 36(3): 629–643

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waterman A.S. 1984, The Psychology of Individualism. Praeger, New York, NY

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiggins J.S. 1980, Personality and Prediction: Principles of Personality Assessment. Addison-Wesley, Menlo Park, CA

    Google Scholar 

  • Wink P., Dillon M. 2003, Religiousness, spirituality, and psychosocial functioning in late adulthood: Findings from a longitudinal study Psychology and Aging 18(4): 916–924

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgement

This research was supported by the National Institute of Mental Health (P50-MH61083), and the National Institute on Aging (P01-AG020166). We are grateful to Emily Greenfield and Alan Waterman for their insightful comments and suggestions on an earlier version of this manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute on Aging, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA

    Carol D. Ryff & Burton H. Singer

Authors
  1. Carol D. Ryff
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Burton H. Singer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Carol D. Ryff.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Ryff, C.D., Singer, B.H. Know Thyself and Become What You Are: A Eudaimonic Approach to Psychological Well-Being. J Happiness Stud 9, 13–39 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-006-9019-0

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-006-9019-0

Keywords

Search

Navigation