Designing a Longitudinal Cohort Study of Gambling in Alberta: Rationale, Methods, and Challenges
- 256 Downloads
- 16 Citations
Abstract
Longitudinal research on the determinants of gambling behavior is sparse. This article briefly reviews the previous seventeen longitudinally designed studies, focusing on the methodology for each study. This is followed by a description of our ongoing longitudinal study entitled the Leisure, Lifestyle, and Lifecycle Project (LLLP). Participants for the LLLP were recruited from four locations in Alberta, Canada, including both rural and urban populations. In the LLLP most participants were recruited using random digit dialing (RDD), with 1808 participants from 5 age cohorts at baseline: 13–15, 18–20, 23–25, 43–45, and 63–65. Individuals completed telephone, computer, and face-to-face surveys at baseline, with the data collection occurring between February and October, 2006. At baseline, a wide variety of constructs were measured, including gambling behavior, substance use, psychopathology, intelligence, family environment, and internalizing and externalizing problems. Finally, the conclusions that can be drawn thus far are discussed as well as the plans for three future data collections.
Keywords
Gambling Predictors Longitudinal study Methodology Cohort designNotes
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the valuable input of Vickii Williams, Executive Director, AGRI. Funding for this Study: Alberta Gambling Research Institute (AGRI).
References
- Abbott, M. W., & Clarke, D. (2007). Prospective problem gambling research: Contribution and potential. International Gambling Studies, 7, 123–144. doi: 10.1080/14459790701261714.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Abbott, M. W., Williams, M., & Volberg, R. A. (1999). Seven-years on: A follow-up study of frequent and problem gamblers living in the community. Wellington: Department of International Affairs.Google Scholar
- Abbott, M. W., Williams, M. M., & Volberg, R. A. (2004). A prospective study of problem and regular nonproblem gamblers living in the community. Substance Use and Misuse, 39, 855–884. doi: 10.1081/JA-120030891.
- ACCORD Research. (2000) Alberta gaming and liquor commission study of gaming attitudes in Alberta: Final report 2000 Presented to the Alberta Gaming and Liquor Commission by ACCORD Research at the University of Calgary.Google Scholar
- Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2001). Manual for the ASEBA school-age forms and profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth & Families.Google Scholar
- American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-IV) (4th ed.). Washington, DC: APA.Google Scholar
- Aquilino, W. S. (1997). Privacy effects on self-reported drug use: Interactions with survey mode and respondent characteristics. In L. Harrison & A. Hughes (Eds.), The validity of self-reported drug use: Improving the accuracy of survey estimates (NIDA research monograph 167). Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.Google Scholar
- Azmier, J. J. (2000, February). Canadian gambling behaviour and attitudes: Summary report. Gambling in Canada research report no. 8. Canada West Foundation.Google Scholar
- Barnes, G. M., Welte, J. W., Hoffman, J. H., & Dintcheff, B. A. (1999). Gambling and alcohol use among youth: Influences of demographic, socialization, and individual factors. Addictive Behaviors, 24, 749–767. doi: 10.1016/S0306-4603(99)00048-9.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Barnes, G. M., Welte, J. W., Hoffman, J. H., & Dintcheff, B. A. (2002). Effects of alcohol misuse on gambling patterns in youth. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 63, 767–775.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Barnes, G. M., Welte, J. W., Hoffman, J. H., & Dintcheff, B. A. (2005). Shared predictors of youth gambling, substance use, and delinquency. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 19, 165–174. doi: 10.1037/0893-164X.19.2.165.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Bell, R. Q. (1953). Convergence: An accelerated longitudinal approach. Child Development, 24, 145–152. doi: 10.2307/1126345.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Bernstein, D. P., Ahluvalia, T., Pogge, D., & Handelsman, L. (1997). Validity of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire in an adolescent psychiatric population. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 340–348. doi: 10.1097/00004583-199703000-00012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Bernstein, D. P., & Fink, L. (1998). Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ): A retrospective self- report. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
- Blaszczynski, A., Ladouceur, R., & Moodie, C. (In press). The Sydney Laval Universities Gambling Screen: Preliminary data. Addiction Research and Theory.Google Scholar
- Blaszczynski, A., & Nower, L. (2002). A pathway model of problem and pathological gambling. Addiction, 97, 487–499. doi: 10.1046/j.1360-0443.2002.00015.x.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Boots-Miller, B., Ribisl, K., Mowbray, C., Davidson, W., Walton, M., & Herman, S. (1998). Methods of ensuring high follow-up raters: Lessons from a longitudinal study of dual diagnosed participants. Substance Use and Misuse, 33, 2665–2685.Google Scholar
- Buckner, J. C. (1988). The development of an instrument to measure neighborhood cohesion. American Journal of Community Psychology, 16, 771–791. doi: 10.1007/BF00930892.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Cameron, J. E. (2004). A three-factor model of social identity. Self and Identity, 3, 239–262. doi: 10.1080/13576500444000047.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Claus, R. E., Kindleberger, L. R., & Dugan, M. C. (2002). Predictors of attrition in a longitudinal study of substance abusers. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 34, 69–74.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Collins, R. L., Ellicson, P. L., Hays, R. D., & McCaffrey, D. F. (2000). Effects of incentive size and timing on response rates to a follow-up wave of a longitudinal mailed survey. Evaluation Review, 24, 347–363.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Revised NEO personality inventory (NEO PI-R) and NEO five-factor inventory (NEO-FFI): Professional Manual. Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.Google Scholar
- Cotter, R. B., Burke, J. D., Loeber, R., & Navratil, J. L. (2002). Innovative retention methods in longitudinal research: A case study of the developmental trends study. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 11, 485–498. doi: 10.1023/A:1020939626243.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Cottler, L. B., & Cunningham-Williams, R. M. (2000). The 11-year incidence of gambling problems among drug users recruited from the St. Louis ECA Study. The Wager, 5, 1–2.Google Scholar
- Council of American Survey Research Organizations (CASRO). (1982). On the definition of response rates. Port Jefferson, NY: CASRO.Google Scholar
- Cunningham-Williams, R. M., Cottler, L. B., Compton, W. M., & Spitznagel, E. L. (1998). Taking chances: Problem gamblers and mental health disorders–Results from the St. Louis Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study. American Journal of Public Health, 88, 1093–1096.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Cunningham-Williams, R. M., Cottler, L. B., Compton, W. M., Spitznagel, E. L., & Ben-Abdallah, A. (2000). Problem gambling and comorbid psychiatric and substance use disorders among drug users recruited from drug treatment and community settings. Journal of Gambling Studies, 16, 347–376. doi: 10.1023/A:1009428122460.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Cunningham-Williams, R. M., Grucza, R. A., Cottler, L. B., Womack, S. B., Books, S. J., Przybeck, T. R., et al. (2005). Prevalence and predictors of pathological gambling: Results from the St. Louis personality, health and lifestyle (SLPHL) study. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 39, 377–390.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- DeFuentes-Merillas, L., Koeter, M. W. J., Schippers, G. M., & van den Brink, W. (2004). Temporal stability of pathological scratchcard gambling among adult scratchcard buyers two years later. Addiction, 99, 117–127. doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2004.00601.x.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Dickerson, M. (2003). Exploring the limits of responsible gambling: Harm minimization or consumer protection? Journal of the National Association for Gambling Studies, 15(1), 29–44.Google Scholar
- Dickerson, M., & Baron, E. (2000). Contemporary issues and future directions for research into pathological gambling. Addiction, 95, 1145–1159. doi: 10.1080/09652140050111087.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Edwards, G., Arif, A., & Hodgson, R. (1981). Nomenclature and classification of drug and alcohol related problems. WHO Bulletin, 99, 225. World Health Organization.Google Scholar
- el-Guebaly, N., & Hodgins, D. (2000). Pathological gambling: Biopsychosocial dimension and treatment. Edmonton, AB: Alberta Gaming Research Institute.Google Scholar
- Farrington, D. P. (1991). Longitudinal research strategies: Advantages, problems, and prospects. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 369–374. doi: 10.1097/00004583-199105000-00003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Ferris, J., & Wynne, H. (2001). The Canadian Problem Gambling Index final report. Phase II final report to the Canadian Inter-Provincial Task Force on Problem Gambling.Google Scholar
- Ferris, J., Wynne, H., & Single, E. (1999). Measuring problem gambling in Canada: Final report. Ontario, CCSA: Canadian Centre on Substance Abuse.Google Scholar
- Fisher, S. E. (2000). Developing the DSM IV criteria to identify adolescent problem gambling in non-clinical populations. Journal of Gambling Studies, 16, 253–273. doi: 10.1023/A:1009437115789.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Freeman, H. E. (1983). Research opportunities related to CATI. Sociological Methods and Research, 12(2), 143–152. doi: 10.1177/0049124183012002003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Glenn, N. D. (1977). Cohort analysis. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
- Hodgins, D. C., & el-Guebaly, N. (2004). Retrospective and prospective reports of precipitants to relapse in pathological gambling. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 72–80. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.72.1.72.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Hodgins, D. C., Peden, N., & Cassidy, E. (2005). The association between comorbidity and outcome in pathological gambling: A prospective follow-up of recent quitters. Journal of Gambling Studies, 21, 255–271. doi: 10.1007/s10899-005-3099-3.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Jacques, C., & Ladouceur, R. (2006). A prospective study of the impact of opening a casino on gambling behaviours: 2- and 4-year follow-ups. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 51, 764–773.Google Scholar
- Jacques, C., Ladouceur, R., & Ferland, F. (2000). Impact of availability on gambling: A longitudinal study. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 45, 810–815.Google Scholar
- Jones, R., Zhou, M., & Yates, W. R. (2000). Improving return rates for health-care outcome. Psychological Reports, 87, 639–642. doi: 10.2466/PR0.87.6.639-642.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Kessler, R. C., Andrews, G., Mroczek, D., Ustun, B., & Wittchem, H. (1998). The World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview Short-Form (CIDI-SF). International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 7(4), 171–185. doi: 10.1002/mpr.47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Kessler, R. C., McGonagle, K. A., Zhao, S., Nelson, C. B., Hughes, M., Eshleman, S., et al. (1994). Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States. Results from the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 8–19.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Kongs, S. K., Thompson, L. L., Iverson, G. L., & Heaton, R. K. (2000). Wisconsin card sorting test—64 card version professional manual. Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.Google Scholar
- LaBrie, R. A., LaPlante, D. A., Nelson, S. E., Schumann, A., & Shaffer, H. J. (2007). Assessing the playing field: A prospective longitudinal study of internet sports gambling behavior. Journal of Gambling Studies, 23, 347–362. doi: 10.1007/s10899-007-9067-3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Ladouceur, R., Sylvain, C., & Gosselin, P. (2007). Self-exclusion program: A longitudinal evaluation study. Journal of Gambling Studies, 23, 85–94. doi: 10.1007/s10899-006-9032-6.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Loeber, R., & Farrington, D. P. (1994). Problems and solutions in longitudinal and experimental treatment studies of child psychopathology and delinquency. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 62, 887–900. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.62.5.887.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Loeber, R., & Farrington, D. P. (1995). Longitudinal approaches in epidemiological research of conduct problems. In F. C. Verhulst & H. M. Koot (Eds.), The epidemiology of child and adolescent psychopathology (pp. 309–336). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
- Lubben, J. E. (1988). Assessing social networks among elderly populations. Family and Community Health, 11, 42–52.Google Scholar
- Malo, S. (2007). Population projections for Alberta and its health regions, 2006 to 2035. http://www.health.alberta.ca/resources/publications/PopProj_06.pdf. Accessed 23 June 2008.
- McAllister, I., & Makkai, T. (1991). Correcting for the underreporting of drug use in opinion surveys. The International Journal of the Addictions, 26, 945–961.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- McCowan, W. G., & Chamberlain, L. L. (2000). Best possible odds: Contemporary treatment strategies for gambling disorders. New York: John Wily.Google Scholar
- McGowan, V., Droessler, D., Nixon, G., & Grimshaw, M. (2000). Recent research in the socio- cultural domain of gaming and gambling: An annotated bibliography and critical overview. Edmonton, AB: Alberta Gaming Research Institute.Google Scholar
- Moos, R. H., & Moos, B. S. (2002). A social climate scale: Family Environment Scale Manual: Development, Applications, Research (3rd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Mind Garden, Inc.Google Scholar
- Morey, L. C. (1991). The personality assessment inventory: Professional manuel. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources Inc.Google Scholar
- Morrisson, T. C., Wahlgren, D. R., Hovell, M. F., Zakarian, J. U., Burhman-Kreitner, S., Hofstetter, C. R., et al. (1997). Tracking and follow-up of 16, 915 adolescents: Minimizing attrition bias. Controlled Clinical Trials, 18, 383–96. doi: 10.1016/S0197-2456(97)00025-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- PsychCorp. (1999). Wechsler abbreviated scale of intelligence manual. San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Assessment Inc.Google Scholar
- Raylu, N., & Oei, T. P. S. (2002). Pathological gambling: A comprehensive review. Clinical Psychology Review, 22, 1009–1061. doi: 10.1016/S0272-7358(02)00101-0.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Rohrbaugh, J., & Jessor, R. (1975). Religiosity in youth: A personal control against deviant behavior. Journal of Personality, 43, 136–155. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.1975.tb00577.x.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Salyer, J., Geddes, N., Smith, C. S., & Mark, B. A. (1998). Commitment and communication: Keys to minimizing attrition in multisite longitudinal organizational studies. Nursing Research, 47, 123–125. doi: 10.1097/00006199-199803000-00012.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Schaeffer, N. C. (2000). Asking questions about threatening topics: A selective overview. In A. A. Stone & J. S. Turkkan (Eds.), The science of self-report: Implications for research and practice (pp. 105–121). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
- Schumm, W. R., Paff-Bergen, L. A., Hatch, R. C., Obiorah, F. C., Copeland, J. M., Meens, L. D., et al. (1986). Concurrent and discriminant validity of the Kansas Marital Satisfaction Scale. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 48, 381–387. doi: 10.2307/352405.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Shaffer, H. J., & Hall, M. N. (2001). Updating and refining prevalence estimates of disordered gambling behavior in the United States and Canada. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 92, 168–172.Google Scholar
- Shaffer, H. J., & Hall, M. N. (2002). The natural history of gambling and drinking problems among casino employees. The Journal of Social Psychology, 142, 405–424.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Slutske, W. S. (2007). Longitudinal studies of gambling behavior. In G. Smith, D. C. Hodgins, & R. J. Williams (Eds.), Research and measurement issues in gambling studies (pp. 127–154). San Francisco, CA: Elsevier.Google Scholar
- Slutske, W. S., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., & Poulton, R. (2005). Personality and problem gambling: A prospective study of a birth cohort of young adults. Archive of General Psychiatry, 62, 769–775. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.62.7.769.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Slutske, W. S., Jackson, K. M., & Sher, K. J. (2003). The natural history of problem gambling from age 18 to 29. Journal Abnormal Psychology, 112, 263–274. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.112.2.263.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Smith, G. J., & Wynne, H. J. (2000). A review of the gambling literature in the economic and policy domains. Edmonton, AB: Alberta Gaming Research Institute.Google Scholar
- Smith, G., & Wynne, H. (2002). Measuring gambling and problem gambling in Alberta using the Canadian Problem Gambling Index. A report prepared for the Alberta Gaming Research Institute. Edmonton, AB.Google Scholar
- Smith, G., & Wynne, H. (2004). VLT gambling in Alberta: A preliminary analysis. A report prepared for the Alberta Gaming Research Institute. Edmonton, AB.Google Scholar
- Statistics Canada. (2001). Statistics Canada 2001 Census. Ottawa, ON: Statistics Canada.Google Scholar
- Statistics Canada & the Canadian Institutes of Health Research: Canadian Community Health Survey (CCHS). (2002, May). Cycle 1.2: Mental Health and Well-Being.Google Scholar
- Supple, A. J., Aquilino, W. S., & Wright, D. L. (1999). Collecting sensitive self-report data with laptop computers: Impact on the response tendencies of adolescents in a home interview. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 9, 467–488. doi: 10.1207/s15327795jra0904_5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Tourangeau, R., & Smith, T. W. (1996). Asking sensitive questions: The impact of data collection mode, question format, and question context. Public Opinion Quarterly, 60, 275–304. doi: 10.1086/297751.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Tucker, C., Brick, J. M., Meekins, B., & Morganstein, D. (2004). Household telephone and usage patterns in the U.S. in 2004. Unpublished monograph.Google Scholar
- van Brunschot, E. G. (2000). Gambling in context: The socio-cultural domain literature overview and annotated bibliography. Edmonton, AB: Alberta Gaming Research Institute.Google Scholar
- Vander Bilt, J., Dodge, H. H., Pandav, R., Shaffer, H. J., & Ganguli, M. (2004). Gambling participation and social support among older adults: A longitudinal community study. Journal of Gambling Studies, 20, 373–390. doi: 10.1007/s10899-004-4580-0.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Vitaro, F., Arseneault, L., & Tremblay, R. E. (1997). Dispositional predictors of problem gambling in male adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 1769–1770.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Vitaro, F., Arseneault, L., & Tremblay, R. E. (1999). Impulsivity predicts problem gambling in low SES adolescent males. Addiction, 94, 565–575. doi: 10.1046/j.1360-0443.1999.94456511.x.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Vitaro, F., Brendgen, M., Ladouceur, R., & Tremblay, R. E. (2001). Gambling, delinquency, and drug use during adolescence: Mutual influences and common risk factors. Journal of Gambling Studies, 17, 171–190. doi: 10.1023/A:1012201221601.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Vitaro, F., Ladouceur, R., & Bujold, A. (1996). Predictive and concurrent correlates of gambling in early adolescent boys. Journal of Early Adolescence, 16, 211–228. doi: 10.1177/0272431696016002005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Vitaro, F., Wanner, B., Ladouceur, R., Brendgen, M., & Tremblay, R. E. (2004). Trajectories of gambling during adolescence. Journal of Gambling Studies, 20, 47–69. doi: 10.1023/B:JOGS.0000016703.84727.d3.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Volberg, R. A. (2007). Population surveys. In G. Smith, D. C. Hodgins, & R. J. Williams (Eds.), Research and measurement issues in gambling studies (pp. 33–54). San Francisco, CA: Elsevier.Google Scholar
- Vuchinich, R. E., Tucker, J. A., & Harllee, L. M. (1986). Individual differences in the reliability of alcoholics’ report on drinking. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
- Wanner, B., Vitaro, F., Ladouceur, R., Brendgen, M., & Tremblay, R. E. (2004). Joint trajectories of gambling, alcohol, and marijuana use during adolescence: A person- and variable-centered developmental approach. Addictive Behavior, 31, 566–580. doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2005.05.037.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Ware, J. E., Kosinski, M., Dewey, J. E., & Gandek, B. (2001). How to score and interpret single- item health status measures: A manual for users of the SF-8 Health Survey. Lincoln, RI: Quality Metrics Incorporated.Google Scholar
- Wiebe, J., Cox, B., & Falkowski-Ham, A. (2003a). Psychological and social factors associated with problem gambling in Ontario: A one year follow-up study. Ontario: Responsible Gambling Council.Google Scholar
- Wiebe, J., Single, E., & Falkowski-Ham, A. (2001). Measuring gambling and problem gambling in Ontario. Ontario: Canadian Centre on Substance Abuse and Responsible Gambling Council.Google Scholar
- Wiebe, J., Single, E., & Falkowski-Ham, A. (2003b). Exploring the evolution of problem gambling: A one year follow-up study. Ontario: Responsible Gambling Council.Google Scholar
- Williams, R. J. (2003). Reliability and validity of four scales to assess gambling attitudes, gambling knowledge, gambling fallacies and ability to calculate gambling odds. Unpublished technical report.Google Scholar
- Williams, R. J., Connolly, D., Wood, R. T., & Nowatzki, N. (2006). Gambling and problem gambling in a sample of university students. Journal of Gambling Issues, 16 [online journal: http://www.camh.net/egambling/].
- Winters, K. C., & Anderson, N. (2000). Gambling involvement and drug use among adolescents. Journal of Gambling Studies, 16, 175–198. doi: 10.1023/A:1009480930810.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Winters, K. C., Stinchfield, R. D., Botzet, A., & Anderson, N. (2002). A prospective study of youth gambling behaviors. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 16, 3–9. doi: 10.1037/0893-164X.16.1.3.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Winters, K. C., Stinchfield, R. D., Botzet, A., & Slutske, W. S. (2005). Pathways of youth gambling problem severity. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 19, 104–107. doi: 10.1037/0893-164X.19.1.104.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Winters, K. C., Stinchfield, R. D., & Fulkerson, J. (1993a). Patterns of characteristics of adolescent gambling. Journal of Gambling Studies, 9, 371–386. doi: 10.1007/BF01014628.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Winters, K. C., Stinchfield, R. D., & Fulkerson, J. (1993b). Toward the development of an adolescent gambling problem severity scale. Journal of Gambling Studies, 9, 63–84. doi: 10.1007/BF01019925.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Winters, K. C., Stinchfield, R. D., & Kim, L. G. (1995). Monitoring adolescent gambling in Minnesota. Journal of Gambling Studies, 11, 165–183. doi: 10.1007/BF02107113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- World Health Organization. (1997). Composite international diagnostic interview (CIDI, version 2.1). Geneva: World Health Organization [WHO].Google Scholar
- Xian, H., Scherrrer, J. F., Slutske, W. S., Shah, K. R., Volberg, R., & Eisen, S. A. (2007). Genetic and environmental contributions to pathological gambling symptoms in a 10-year follow-up. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 10, 174–179. doi: 10.1375/twin.10.1.174.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Yeo, D., Mantel, H., & Liu, T. P. (1999). Bootstrap variance estimation for the National Population Health Survey, Proceedings of the Survey Research Methods Section, American Statistical Association. http://www.amstat.org/Sections/Srms/Proceedings/papers/1999_136.pdf. Accessed 23 June 2008.