Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Enhancing the Effects of Sexual Orientation Diversity Training: The Effects of Setting Goals and Training Mentors on Attitudes and Behaviors

  • Published:
Journal of Business and Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of goal-setting theory (Locke, Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 3, 157–189, 1968; Locke and Latham, 1990, A theory of goal setting and task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall; Locke and Latham, American Psychologist, 57, 705–717, 2002) within a diversity training context to enhance training outcomes. In particular, the training focused on an understudied group—gay men and lesbians—and examined both the short- and long-term outcomes associated with diversity training.

Design/Methodology/Approach

Using experimental methods in a field setting, participants (college students) were randomly assigned to a 2(goal-setting condition: self-set goals and no goals) × 2(mentor goal condition: mentor goals and no mentor goals) factorial design, where behavioral and attitudinal data were collected at two points in time: 3 months and 8 months subsequent to training.

Findings

Participants who developed sexual orientation supportive goals reported more supportive behaviors and attitudes toward gay and lesbian individuals than those who did not. Sexual orientation supportive behaviors mediated the relationship between goal-setting and sexual orientation attitudes.

Implications

The pattern of results suggests that time was the key for participants to meet the goals that were set during the diversity training. Both behaviors and attitudes were influenced by the goal setting at 8 months, but not after 3 months. This study demonstrates the importance of measuring both behaviors and attitudes in assessing diversity training.

Originality/Value

This is one of the first studies to integrate goal-setting theory (Locke and Latham, 1990, A theory of goal setting and task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall; Locke and Latham, American Psychologist, 57, 705–717, 2002) into the area of diversity training in an experimental field setting. We used a longitudinal design, addressing limitations of past research that usually examine short-term reactions to diversity training.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Baldwin, T. T., & Ford, J. K. (1988). Transfer of training: A review and directions for future research. Personnel Psychology, 41, 63–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

  • Bell, M. P. (2007). Diversity in organizations. Mason, OH: Thomson South-Western.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bell, M. P., & Kravitz, D. A. (2008). What do we know and need to learn about diversity education and training? Academy of Management Learning and Education, 7, 301–308.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bernier, A., Larose, S., & Soucy, N. (2005). Academic mentoring in college: The interactive role of student’s and mentor’s interpersonal dispositionsannie. Research in Higher Education, 46, 29–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, T. C., & Latham, G. P. (2002). The effects of behavioural outcome goals, learning goals, and urging people to do their best on an individual’s teamwork behaviour in a group problem-solving task. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 34, 276–285.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burke, L. A., & Hutchins, H. M. (2007). Training transfer: An integrative literature review. Human Resource Development Review, 6, 263–296.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chao, G. T., Walz, P. M., & Gardner, P. D. (1992). Formal and informal mentorships: A comparison on mentoring functions and contracts with nonmentored counterparts. Personnel Psychology, 45, 619–636.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cheng, E., & Ho, D. (2001). A review of transfer training studies in the past decade. Personnel Review, 30, 102–118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chrobot-Mason, D., & Quiñones, M. A. (2002). Training for a diverse workplace. In K. Kraiger (Ed.), Creating, implementing and managing effective training and development (pp. 117–159). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, M. M. (2003). Three non-employment law cases in high court have business ramifications. HR Magazine, 48, 31–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crocker, J., Major, B., & Steele, C. (1998). Social stigma. In D. T. Gilbert & S. T. Fiske (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (pp. 504–553). New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dutton, J. E., & Ashford, S. J. (1993). Selling issues to top management. Academy of Management Review, 18, 397–428.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eby, L. T. (1997). Alternative forms of mentoring in changing organizational environments: A conceptual extension of the mentoring literature. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 51, 125–144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eby, L. T., & Lockwood, A. (2005). Proteges and mentors’ reactions to participating in formal mentoring programs: A qualitative investigation. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 67, 441–458.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fagenson, E. A. (1989). The mentor advantage: Perceived career-job experiences of protégés versus non-proteges. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 10, 309–320.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Festinger, L., & Carlsmith, J. M. (1959). Cognitive consequences of forced compliance. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 58, 203–210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fletcher, J. K., & Ragins, B. R. (2007). Stone centre relational cultural theory: A window on relational mentoring. In B. R. Ragins & K. E. Kram (Eds.), The handbook of mentoring at work: Research, theory and practice (pp. 373–399). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ford, J. K., & Weissbein, D. A. (1997). Transfer of training: an updated review and analysis’. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 10, 22–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Friskopp, A., & Silverstein, S. (1996). Straight jobs, gay lives: Gay and lesbian professionals, the Harvard Business School, and the American workplace. New York: Touchstone/Simon & Schuster.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galvin, T. (2003, October). The twenty-second annual industry report. Training, 19–45.

  • Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. New York: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein, I., & Ford, J. K. (2002). Training in organizations (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gonsiorek, J. C., & Weinrich, J. D. (1991). Homosexuality: Research implications for public policy. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gurin, P., Nagda, B. A., & Lopez, G. E. (2004). The benefits of diversity in education for democratic citizenship. Journal of Social Issues, 60, 17–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haddock, G., Zanna, M. P., & Esses, V. M. (1993). Assessing the structure of prejudicial attitudes: The case of attitudes toward homosexuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 1105–1118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hebl, M. R., Foster, J. B., Mannix, L. M., & Dovidio, J. F. (2002). Formal and interpersonal discrimination: A field study of bias toward homosexual applicants. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 815–825.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herek, G. M. (1994). Assessing heterosexuals’ attitudes toward lesbians and ay men: A review of the empirical research with the ATLG scale. In B. Greene & G. M. Herek (Eds.), Contemporary perspectives in lesbian and gay issues in psychology (pp. 206–228). Newbury Park, CA: SAGE.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herek, G. M. (2000). The psychology of sexual prejudice. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9, 19–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herek, G. M. (2004). Beyond “homophobia”: Thinking about sexual prejudice and stigma in the twenty-first century. Sexuality Research & Social Policy, 1, 6–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holladay, C. L., & Quinones, M. A. (2008). The influence of training focus and trainer characteristics on diversity training effectiveness. Academy of Management: Learning & Education, 7, 343–354.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Horn, S. S., Szalacha, L. A., & Drill, K. (2008). Schooling, sexuality, and rights: An investigation of heterosexual students’ social cognition regarding sexual orientation and the rights of gay and lesbian peers in school. Journal of Social Issues, 64, 791–813.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hurtado, S. (2005). The next generation of diversity and intergroup relations research. Journal of Social Issues, 61, 595–610.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobi, M. (1991). Mentoring and undergraduate academic success: A literature review. Review of Educational Research, 61, 505–532.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs, J. A. (1986). The sex-segregation of fields of study. Journal of Higher Education, 57, 134–154.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kalev, A., Dobbin, F., & Kelly, E. (2006). Best practices or best guesses? Assessing the efficacy of corporate affirmative action and diversity policies. American Sociological Review, 71, 589–617.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kleinman, G., Siegel, P. H., & Eckstein, C. (2001). Mentoring and learning: The case of CPA firms. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 22, 22–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kleinman, G., Siegel, P. H., & Eckstein, C. (2002). Teams as a learning forum for accounting professionals. Journal of Management Development, 21, 427–460.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Latham, G. P. (1997). Overcoming mental models that limit research on transfer of training in organizational settings. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 46, 371–375.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazin, M. (2007). Record 94% of Fortune 500 companies provide sexual orientation discrimination protection. Retrieved June 1, 2011, from http://Equalityforum.com.

  • Locke, E. A. (1968). Toward a theory of task motivation and incentives. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 3, 157–189.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting and task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. American Psychologist, 57, 705–717.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lottes, I. L., & Kuriloff, P. J. (1994). The impact of college experience on political and social attitudes. Sex Roles, 31, 31–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morrison, M. A., Morrison, T. G., & Franklin, R. (2009). Modern and old-fashioned homonegativity among samples of Canadian and American university students. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 40, 523–542.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Noe, R. A. (1988). An investigation of the determinants of successful assigned mentoring relationships. Personnel Psychology, 41, 457–480.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Noe, R. A. (1999). Employee training and development. Boston: Irwin McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Norton, M. I., Monin, B., Cooper, J., & Hogg, M. A. (2003). Vicarious dissonance: Attitude change from the inconsistency of others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 47–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879–891.

    Google Scholar 

  • Quiñones, M. A., & Ehrenstein, A. (1997). Psychological perspectives on training in organizations. In M. A. Quiñones & A. Ehrenstein (Eds.), Training for a rapidly changing workplace: Applications of psychological research. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Ragins, B. R. (2004). Sexual orientation in the workplace: The unique work and career experiences of gay, lesbian and bisexual workers. Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, 23, 25–120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ragins, B. R., & Cornwell, J. M. (2001). Pink triangles: Antecedents and consequences of perceived workplace discrimination against gay and lesbian employees. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 1244–1261.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ragins, B. R., Singh, P., & Cornwell, J. M. (2007). Making the invisible visible: Fear and disclosure of sexual orientation at work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 1103–1118.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reber, R. A., & Wallin, J. A. (1984). The Effects of Training, Goal Setting, and Knowledge of Results on Safe Behavior: A Component Analysis. Academy of Management Journal, 27, 544–560.

  • Roberson, L., Kulik, C. T., & Pepper, M. B. (2001). Designing effective diversity training: Influence of group composition and trainee experience. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 22(8), 871–885.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roberson, L., Kulik, C. T., & Pepper, M. B. (2003). Using needs assessment to resolve controversies in diversity training design. Group & Organization Management, 28, 148–174.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roberson, L., Kulik, C. T., & Pepper, M. B. (2009). Individual & environmental factors influencing the use of transfer strategies after diversity training. Group & Organization Management, 34, 67–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rynes, S., & Rosen, B. (1994). What makes diversity programs work? HR Magazine, 39, 67–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rynes, S., & Rosen, B. (1995). A field survey of factors affecting the adoption and perceived success of diversity training. Personnel Psychology, 48, 247–270.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salas, E., & Cannon-Bowers, J. A. (2001). The science of training: A decade of progress. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 471–499.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Segal, J. A. (2003). Diversity: Direct or disguised? HR Magazine, 48, 10–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith-Jentsch, K. A., Salas, E., & Brannick, M. T. (2001). To transfer or not to transfer? Investigating the combined effects of trainee characteristics, team leader support, and team climate. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 279–292.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weaver, V. J., & Dixon-Kheir, C. (2002). Making the business case for diversity. SHRM.

  • Wexley, K. N., & Baldwin, T. T. (1986). Post-training strategies for facilitating positive transfer: An empirical exploration. Academy of Management Journal, 29, 503–520.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wexley, K. N., & Nemeroff, W. (1975). Effectiveness of positive reinforcement and goal setting as methods of management development. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60, 239–246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitley, B. E., Childs, C. E., & Collins, J. B. (2011). Differences in black and white American college attitudes toward lesbian and gay men. Sex Roles, 64, 299–310.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilder, D. H., Hoyt, A. E., Surbeck, B. S., Wilder, J. C., & Carney, P. A. (1986). Greek affiliation and attitude change in college students. Journal of College Student Personnel, 27, 510–519.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood, R. A., & Locke, E. A. (1990). Goal setting and strategy effects on complex tasks. Research in Organizational Behavior, 12, 73–109.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Conrad N. Hilton College of Hotel and Restaurant Management, University of Houston, 229 C. N. Hilton College, Houston, TX, USA

    Juan M. Madera

  2. Department of Psychology, George Mason University, 4400 University Drive—MSN 3F5, Fairfax, VA, 22030, USA

    Eden B. King

  3. Department of Psychology, Rice University, 1600 Main Street—MS 205, Houston, TX, 77005, USA

    Michelle R. Hebl

Authors
  1. Juan M. Madera
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Eden B. King
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Michelle R. Hebl
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Juan M. Madera.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Madera, J.M., King, E.B. & Hebl, M.R. Enhancing the Effects of Sexual Orientation Diversity Training: The Effects of Setting Goals and Training Mentors on Attitudes and Behaviors. J Bus Psychol 28, 79–91 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-012-9264-7

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-012-9264-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation