Are Asian Households in the U.S. More Likely than Other Households to Help Children with College Costs?
Abstract
We test whether Asian parents place more importance on helping their children with college costs than parents in other racial/ethnic groups. Some previous research has shown that Asian parents are more likely than comparable White parents to list saving for college as an important goal, but does that indicate that they place more importance on helping their children with college costs? Descriptive analyses of the 2013 Survey of Consumer Finances indicate that Asian parents are more likely than White parents to (1) expect to contribute to their children’s college costs and (2) list college as an important saving goal. Our logistic regression controlling for household characteristics shows that among households with at least one child age 13 to 17, Asian parents are not different from parents with other racial/ethnic identification in expecting to contribute to their children’s college costs. Controlling for household characteristics and expecting to contribute to their children’s college costs, White parents have less than half of the odds of listing college as an important saving goal as Asian parents. However, listing college as a saving goal may not be a good indicator of the importance placed by parents of college for their children, as there are other ways to help with college costs, including borrowing, contributing out of current income, and some parents may consider the goal as having been met by their own previous savings or the savings of relatives.
Keywords
College saving Financial planning Asian households Social norms Racial/ethnic differences Survey of consumer financesJEL Classification
D11 D12 D14 I2Notes
Compliance with Ethical Standards
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Research Involving with Human and Animal Participants.
This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
References
- Advisory Committee on Student Financial Assistance. (2006). Mortgaging our future: How financial barriers to college undercut America’s global competitiveness. Report. Washington, DC: Advisory Committee on StudentFinancial Assistance. Retrived from: https://www.immagic.com/eLibrary/ARCHIVES/FIN_AID/US_ED/A020618E.pdf.
- Bricker, J., Dettling, L. J., Henriques, A., Hsu, J. W., Moore, K. B., Sabelhaus, J.,.. . et al (2014). Changes in U.S. family finances from 2010 to 2013: Evidence from the Survey of Consumer Finances. Federal Reserve Bulletin, 100(4), 1–41. https://www.federalreserve.gov/pubs/bulletin/2014/pdf/scf14.pdf. Retrived from:.
- Burchell, K., Rettie, R., & Patel, K. (2013). Marketing social norms: Social marketing and the ‘social norm approach’. Journal of Consumer Behavior, 12(1), 1–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Cao, H. (2008). Credit constraints and human capital investment in college education. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 29(1), 41–54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-007-9089-0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Cha, K., Weagley, W., R. O., & Reynolds, L. (2005). Parental borrowing for dependent children’s higher education. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 26(3), 299–321. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-005-5900-y.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Charles, C. Z., Roscigno, V. J., & Torres, K. C. (2007). Racial inequality and college attendance: The mediating role of parental investments. Social Science Research, 36(1), 329–352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2006.02.004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Chen, P., & Finke, M. S. (1996). Negative net worth and the life cycle hypothesis. Financial Counseling and Planning, 7, 87–96.Google Scholar
- Cho, S. H., Xu, Y., & Kiss, D. E. (2015). Understanding student loan decisions: A literature review. Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, 43(3), 229–243. https://doi.org/10.1111/fcsr.12099.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Choy, S. P., & Henke, R. R. (1992). Parental financial support for undergraduate education. Washington: National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education.Google Scholar
- College Board (2016). Trends in college pricing 2016. Trends in higher education series.Google Scholar
- Dondero, M., & Humphries, M. (2016). Planning for the American dream: The college-savings behavior of Asian and Latino foreign-born parents in the United States. Population Research and Policy Review, 35(6), 791–823. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-016-9409-x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Edwards, J. R., & Parry, M. E. (2018). On the use of spline regression in the study of congruence in organizational research. Organizational Research Methods, 21(1), 68–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Fan, X. J., & Zuiker, S. V. (1998). A comparison of household budget allocation patterns between Hispanic Americans and Non-Hispanic White Americans. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 19(2), 309–318, 151–174.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Feldstein, M. (1995). College scholarship rules and private saving. American Economic Review, 85(3), 522–566.Google Scholar
- Hanna, S. D., Kim, K. T., & Lindamood, S. (2018). Behind the numbers: Understanding the Survey of Consumer Finances. Journal of Financial Counseling and Planning, 29(2), 410–418.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Hanna, S. D., Lee, J., & Lindamood, S. (2015). Financial behavior and attitudes of Asians compared to other racial/ethnic groups in the U.S. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 36(3), 309–318. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-015-9447-2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Hanna, S. D., & Lindamood, S. (2008). The decrease in stock ownership by minority households. Journal of Financial Counseling and Planning, 19(2), 46–58.Google Scholar
- Haveman, R., & Wolfe, B. (1995). The determinants of children’s attainments: A review of methods and findings. Journal of Economic Literature, 33(4), 1829–1878.Google Scholar
- Heckman, S., Lim, H., & Montalto, C. (2014). Factors related to financial stress among college students. Journal of Financial Therapy, 5(1), 19–39. https://doi.org/10.4148/1944-9771.1063.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Horne, C. (2001). Sociological perspectives on the emergence of norms. 3–35. In M. Hechter & K. D. Opp (Eds.), Social norms (pp. 3–35). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
- Hortz, J. V., Wiemers, E. E., Rasmussen, J., & Koegel, M. K. (2018). The role of parental wealth and income in financing children’s college attendance and its consequences. National Bureau of Economic Research, NBER Working Paper No. w25144.Google Scholar
- Kane, T. J. (2004). College-going and inequality. In K. M. Neckerman (Ed.), Social inequality. New York: Russell Sage.Google Scholar
- Kao, G. (1995). Asian Americans as model minorities? A look at their academic performance. American Journal of Education, 103(2), 121–159.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Kim, Y., Huang, J., & Sherraden, M. (2014). What shapes assessment of ability to pay for children’s college education? Journal of Consumer Affairs, 48(3), 486–514. https://doi.org/10.1111/joca.12049.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Kim, Y., Sherraden, M., & Clancy, M. (2013). Do mothers’ educational expectations differ by race and ethnicity, or socioeconomic status? Economics of Education Review, 33, 82–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2012.09.007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Kimmes, J. G., & Heckman, S. J. (2017). Parenting styles and college enrollment: A path analysis of risky human capital decisions. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 38(4), 614–627. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-017-9529-4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Lauderdale, M. K., & Heckman, S. J. (2017). Family background and higher education attainment among children of immigrants. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 38(3), 327–337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-017-9537-4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Lee, J. M., & Hanna, S. D. (2015). Savings goals and saving behavior from a perspective of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Journal of Financial Counseling and Planning, 26(2), 129–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Lee, S., Hanna, S., & Siregar, M. (1997). Children’s college as a saving goal. Financial Counseling and Planning, 8(1), 33–36.Google Scholar
- Lieber, R. (2015). Why it makes good sense to save for college now. The New York Times, Oct. 23, B1.Google Scholar
- Lindamood, S., Hanna, S. D., & Bi, L. (2007). Using the Survey of Consumer Finances: Methodological considerations and issues. Journal of Consumer Affairs, 41(2), 195–214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Manly, C. A., Wells, R. S., & Bettencourt, G. M. (2017). Financial planning for college: Parental preparation and capital conversion. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 38(3), 421–438. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-016-9517-0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Messinger, J. (2017). Changing the approach to college funding advice. Journal of Financial Planning, 30(2), 26–29.Google Scholar
- Montalto, C. P., & Sung, J. (1996). Multiple imputation in the 1992 Survey of Consumer Finances. Financial Counseling and Planning, 7(1), 133–146.Google Scholar
- Mountain, T. P., & Hanna, S. D. (2012). Negative net worth and the Life Cycle Hypothesis. Proceedings of the Academy of Financial Services. (online).Google Scholar
- Nam, Y., & Huang, J. (2009). Equal opportunity for all? Parental economic resources and children’s educational attainment. Children and Youth Services Review, 31(6), 625–634.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Neckerman, M. K., & Torche, F. (2007). Inequality: Causes and consequences. Annual Review of Sociology, 33(1), 1–577.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Powell, B., & Steelman, L. C. (1989). The liability of having brothers: Paying for college and the sex composition of the family. Sociology of Education, 62, 134–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Rauscher, E., Elliott, W., O’Brien, M., Callahan, J., & Steensma, J. (2017). Examining the relationship between parental educational expectations and a community-based children’s savings account program. Children and Youth Service Review, 74(1), 96–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.02.005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Roderick, M., Nagaoka, J., Coca, V., & Moeller, E. (2008). From high school to the future: Potholes on the road to college. Research Report. Chicago: University of Chicago, Consortium on Chicago School Research. Retrieved from http://ccsr.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/publications/CCSR_Potholes_Report.pdf.
- SCF Staff (2014). Codebook for the 2013 Survey of Consumer Finances. Retrieved September 27, 2017 from https://www.federalreserve.gov/econres/files/codebk2013.txt.
- Sharpe, D., & Abdel-Ghany, M. (2006). Determinants of income differentials: Comparing Asians with Whites and Blacks. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 27(4), 588–600. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-006-9034-7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Sorokina, O. V. (2013). Parental credit constraints and children’s college education. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 34(2), 157–171. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-012-9322-3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Souleles, N. S. (2000). College tuition and household savings and consumption. Journal of Public Economics, 77(2), 185–207. PII: S0047-2727(99)00068-7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Spera, C., & Wentzel, K., R (2009). Parental aspirations for their children’s educational attainment: Relations to ethnicity, parental education, children’s academic performance, and parental perceptions of school climate. Journal of Youth Adolescence, 38, 1140–1152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-008-9314-7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Suits, D. B., Mason, A., & Chan, L. (1978). Spline functions fitted by standard regression methods. Review of Economics and Statistics, 60, 132–139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Sun, Y. (1998). The academic success of East-Asian–American students—An investment model. Social Science Research, 27(4), 432–456. https://doi.org/10.1006/ssre.1998.0629.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- US Census. (2013). U.S. Census Bureau projections show a slower growing, older, more diverse nation a half century from now. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/ archives/population/cb12-243.html.
- Walsemann, K. M., & Ailshire, J. A. (2017). Student debt spans generations: Characteristics of parents who borrow to pay for their children’s college education. The Journals of Gerontology, 72(6), 1084–1089. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbw150.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Wang, Y., & Benner, A. D. (2014). Parent-child discrepancies in educational expectations: Differential effects of actual versus perceived discrepancies. Child Development, 85(3), 891–900. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Wong, F., & Halgin, R. (2006). The” model minority”: Bane or blessing for Asian Americans? Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 34(1), 38–49. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1912.2006.tb00025.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Wong, P., Lai, C. F., Nagasawa, R., & Lin, T. (1998). Asian Americans as a model minority: Self-perceptions and perceptions by other racial groups. Sociological Perspectives, 41(1), 95–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Yao, R., Gutter, M. S., & Hanna, S. D. (2005). The financial risk tolerance of Blacks, Hispanics and whites. Financial Counseling and Planning, 16(1), 51–62. https://ssrn.com/abstract=2740156.
- Yin, A. (2017). Asian test-prep centers offer parents exactly what they want: ‘Results’. New York Times, Magazine, Oct. 25. Retrieved from https://nyti.ms/2h9NeOR.