Advertisement

Journal of Educational Change

, Volume 13, Issue 1, pp 67–94 | Cite as

Examining organizational learning in schools: The role of psychological safety, experimentation, and leadership that reinforces learning

  • Monica Higgins
  • Ann Ishimaru
  • Rebecca Holcombe
  • Amy Fowler
Article
First Online:

Abstract

This study draws upon theory and methods from the field of organizational behavior to examine organizational learning (OL) in the context of a large urban US school district. We build upon prior literature on OL from the field of organizational behavior to introduce and validate three subscales that assess key dimensions of organizational learning that build upon and extend prior education research: psychological safety, experimentation, and leadership that reinforces learning. Data from 941 teachers across 60 schools in this urban district suggest that organizational learning is an underlying condition which is expressed by teacher perceptions of subfactors of psychological safety, experimentation, and leadership that reinforces learning. Implications for adopting the conceptual framework and methods employed in this research for studying organizational learning and school change are discussed.

Keywords

Organizational learning Psychological safety Experimentation Leadership School change Teacher perceptions Confirmatory factor analysis 
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

References

  1. Argyris, C., & Schon, D. A. (1996). Organizational learning II: Theory, methods and practice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
  2. Bentler, P. M. (1989). Causal modeling via structural equation systems. In J. R. Nesselroade & R. B. Cattell (Eds.), Handbook of multivariate experimental psychology: Perspectives on individual difference (2nd ed., pp. 317–335). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
  3. Bentler, P. M., & Bonett, D. G. (1980). Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures. Psychological Bulletin, 88, 588–606.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  4. Boudett, K. P., City, E. A., & Murnane, R. J. (Eds.). (2005). Data wise: A step-by-step guide to using assessment results to improve teaching and learning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.Google Scholar
  5. Boyd, W. L. (Ed.). (2008). American Journal of Education, 114(4), 521–700.Google Scholar
  6. Bryk, A. S., Camburn, E., & Louis, K. S. (1999). Professional community in Chicago elementary schools: Facilitating factors and organizational consequences. Educational Administration Quarterly, 35(5), 751–781.Google Scholar
  7. Bryk, A. S., & Schneider, B. (2003). Trust in schools: A core resource for school reform. Educational Leadership, 60(6), 40–44.Google Scholar
  8. Bryk, A. S., Sebring, P. E., Allensworth, A. L., & Easton, J. Q. (2010). Organizing schools for improvement: Lessons from Chicago. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
  9. Chicago Consortium for School Research. (2007). Items that compose the measure innovation. Retrieved from http://ccsr.uchicago.edu/surveymeasures2007/innv.html.
  10. Cohen, D. (1990). A revolution in one classroom: The case of Mrs. Oublier. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 12(3), 311–329.Google Scholar
  11. Cohen, W., & Levinthal, D. (1990). Absorptive capacity: A new perspective on learning and innovation. Administrative Science Quarterly, 35(1), 128–152.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  12. Cole, M., & Wertsch, J. V. (1996). Beyond the individual-social antinomy in discussions of Piaget and Vygotsky. Human Development, 39(5), 250–256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  13. Collinson, V., Cook, T., & Conley, S. (2006). Organizational learning in schools and school systems: Improving learning, teaching, and leading. Theory into Practice, 45(2), 107–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  14. Copland, M. A., & Knapp, M. S. (2006). Connecting leadership with learning: A framework for reflection, planning, and action. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.Google Scholar
  15. Cousins, J. B. (1996). Understanding organizational learning for educational leadership and school reform. In K. Leithwood, J. Chapman, P. Corson, P. Hallinger, & A. Hart (Eds.), International handbook of educational leadership and administration (pp. 589–652). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. Darling-Hammond, L. (1996). What matters most: A competent teacher for every child. Phi Delta Kappan, 78(3), 193–200.Google Scholar
  17. Edmondson, A. C. (1999). Psychological safety and learning behavior in work teams. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(2), 350–383.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  18. Edmondson, A. C. (2003). Speaking up in the operating room: How team leaders promote learning in interdisciplinary action teams. Journal of Management Studies, 40(6), 1419–1452.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  19. Edmondson, A. C. (2008). The competitive imperative of learning. Harvard Business Review, 86(7), 60–67.Google Scholar
  20. Elmore, R. F. (2002). Unwarranted intrusion. Education Next, 2(1), 30–35.Google Scholar
  21. Friendly, M. (1995). Planning a factor analytic study. Retrieved from http://www.psych.yorku.ca/lab/psy6140/fa/facplan.htm.
  22. Fullan, M. (1995). The school as learning organization: Distant dreams. Theory into Practice, 34(4), 230–235.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  23. Gallucci, C. (2008). Districtwide instructional reform: Using sociocultural theory to link professional learning to organizational support. American Journal of Education, 114(4), 541–581.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  24. Garvin, D. A., Edmondson, A. C., & Gino, F. (2008). Is yours a learning organization? Harvard Business Review, 86(3), 109–116.Google Scholar
  25. Giles, C., & Hargreaves, A. (2006). The sustainability of innovative schools as learning organizations and professional learning communities during standardized reform. Educational Administration Quarterly, 42(1), 124–156.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  26. Goh, S., Cousins, J., & Elliott, C. (2006). Organizational learning capacity, evaluative inquiry and readiness for change in schools: Views and perceptions of educators. Journal of Educational Change, 7(4), 289–318.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  27. Goh, S., & Richards, G. (1997). Benchmarking the learning capability of organizations. European Management Journal, 15(5), 575–583.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  28. Hatcher, L. (1994). A step-by-step approach to using the SAS system for factor analysis and structural equation modeling. Cary, NC: SAS Institute.Google Scholar
  29. Honig, M. I. (2004). Where’s the ‘up’ in bottom-up reform? Educational Policy, 18(4), 527–561.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  30. Honig, M. I. (2008). District central offices as learning organizations: How sociocultural and organizational learning theories elaborate district central office administrators’ participation in teaching and learning improvement efforts. American Journal of Education, 114(4), 627–664.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  31. Hopkins, D., Harris, A., & Jackson, D. (1997). Understanding the school’s capacity for development: Growth states and strategies. School Leadership and Management, 17(3), 401–411.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. Hord, S. (1997). Professional learning communities: Communities of continuous inquiry and improvement. Austin, TX: Southwest Educational Development Lab.Google Scholar
  33. Hubbard, L., Mehan, H., & Stein, M. K. (2006). Reform as learning: When school reform collides with school culture and community politics. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
  34. Huber, G. P. (1991). Organizational learning: The contributing processes and the literatures. Organization Science, 2(1), 88–115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  35. Imants, J. (2003). Two basic mechanisms for organisational learning in schools. European Journal of Teacher Education, 26(3), 293–311.Google Scholar
  36. Johnson, S. M. (1996). Leading change: The challenge of the new superintendency. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.Google Scholar
  37. Kline, P. (1994). An easy guide to factor analysis. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
  38. Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
  39. Knapp, M. (2008). How can organizational and sociocultural learning theories shed light on district instructional reform? American Journal of Education, 114(4), 521–539.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  40. Leithwood, K., & Aitken, R. (1995). Making schools smarter: A system for monitoring school and district progress. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.Google Scholar
  41. Leithwood, K., & Jantzi, D. (2006). Transformational school leadership for large-scale reform: Effects on students, teachers, and their classroom practices. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 17(2), 201–227.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  42. Leithwood, K., Leonard, L., & Sharratt, L. (1998). Conditions fostering organizational learning in schools. Educational Administration Quarterly, 34(2), 243–276.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  43. Levinthal, D. A., & March, J. G. (1993). The myopia of learning. Strategic Management Journal, 14, 95–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  44. Levitt, B., & March, J. G. (1988). Organizational learning. Annual Review of Sociology, 14, 319–340.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  45. Louis, K. S., Marks, H. M., & Kruse, S. (1996). Teachers’ professional community in restructuring schools. American Educational Research Journal, 33(4), 757–798.Google Scholar
  46. March, J. G., & Simon, H. A. (1958). Organizations. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
  47. Marks, H. M., & Louis, K. S. (1999). Teacher empowerment and the capacity for organizational learning. Educational Administration Quarterly, 35(5), 707–750.Google Scholar
  48. McLaughlin, M. W., & Talbert, J. E. (2006). Building school-based teacher learning communities. New York: Teachers College Press.Google Scholar
  49. McLaughlin, M. W., Talbert, J. E., & Bascia, N. (1990). The contexts of teaching in secondary schools: Teachers’ realities. New York: Teachers College Press.Google Scholar
  50. Moolenaar, N. M., Daly, A. J., & Sleegers, P. J. C. (2011). Ties with potential: Social network structure and innovative climate in Dutch schools. Teachers College Record, 113(9).Google Scholar
  51. Porter, A., Polikoff, M., Goldring, E., Murphy, J., Elliott, S., & May, H. (2010). Developing a psychometrically sound assessment of school leadership: The VAL-ED as a case study. Educational Administration Quarterly, 46(2), 135–173.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  52. Schechter, C. (2008). Organizational learning mechanisms: The meaning, measure, and implications for school improvement. Educational Administration Quarterly, 44(2), 155–186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  53. Senge, P. M. (1990). The fifth dimension: The art and practice of the learning organization. New York: Doubleday.Google Scholar
  54. Silins, H. C., Mulford, W. R., & Zarins, S. (2002). Organizational learning and school change. Educational Administration Quarterly, 38(5), 613–642.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  55. Stein, M., & Coburn, C. (2008). Architectures for learning: A comparative analysis of two urban school districts. American Journal of Education, 114(4), 583–626.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  56. Stoll, L. (1999). Realising our potential: Understanding and developing capacity for lasting improvement. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 10(4), 503–532.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  57. Stoll, L. (2009). Capacity building for school improvement or creating capacity for learning? A changing landscape. Journal of Educational Change, 10(2/3), 115–127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  58. Stoll, L., Bolam, R., McMahon, A., Wallace, M., & Thomas, S. (2006). Professional learning communities: A review of the literature. Journal of Educational Change, 7(4), 221–258.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  59. Van de Ven, D., & Polley, A. (1992). Learning while innovating. Organization Science, 3(1), 92–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  60. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). In M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman (Eds.). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
  61. Wertsch, J. V. (1996). A sociocultural approach to socially shared cognition. In L. B. Resnick, J. M. Levine, & S. D. Teasley (Eds.), Perspectives on socially shared cognition (pp. 85–100). Hyattsville, MD: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

Authors and Affiliations

  • Monica Higgins
    • 1
  • Ann Ishimaru
    • 1
  • Rebecca Holcombe
    • 1
  • Amy Fowler
    • 1
  1. 1.Harvard Graduate School of EducationCambridgeUSA

Personalised recommendations

Cite article

Buy options