Abstract
This study attempts to advance knowledge in the area of controversial advertising by examining the antecedents and consequences of controversial advert perceptions in the context of social media, and particularly social networking sites (SNS). Specifically, we explore how ethical judgement and religious commitment shape controversial advert perceptions leading to attitudes towards the advert, brand attitudes and purchase intentions. Our results indicate that when a SNS advert is judged to be ethically acceptable, the level of perceived advert controversy is lower. However, the impact of ethical judgement on controversial advert perceptions becomes significant and positive when intrapersonal commitment and interpersonal religious commitment are introduced as moderators. This result implies that the level of religious commitment changes the ethical judgement–controversial advert perceptions relationship. The results also highlight that controversial advert perceptions negatively influence attitude towards the advert. The study contributes to the limited knowledge on controversial advertising on SNS, yielding significant and relevant implications for academics and advertisers alike, in their effort to improve advertising effectiveness without offending or alienating target audiences.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Following a suggestion by a JBE reviewer.
Religiosity, religiousness and religious commitment are used interchangeably in the academic literature.
This relationship is not part of our hypotheses as it has been already tested by previous research.
FB Tom Ford advert page: https://www.facebook.com/tomford.
References
Aaker, D. A., & Bruzzone, D. E. (1985). Causes of irritation in advertising. The Journal of Marketing, 49, 47–57.
Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE Publications Inc.
Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behaviour. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Aleassa, H., Pearson, J., & McClurg, S. (2011). Investigating software piracy in Jordan: An extension of the theory of reasoned action. Journal of Business Ethics, 98, 663–676.
Alexander, M. W., & Judd, B. (1978). Do nudes in ads enhance brand recall. Journal of Advertising Research, 18(1), 47–50.
Allport, G. W., & Ross, J. M. (1967). Personal religious orientation and prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 5(4), 432.
Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103(3), 411.
Armstrong, J. S., & Overton, T. S. (1977). Estimating nonresponse bias in mail surveys. Journal of Marketing Research, 14, 396–402.
Bagozzi, R. P., & Yi, Y. (1988). On the evaluation of structural equation models. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 16(1), 74–94.
Bagozzi, R. P., & Yi, Y. (2012). Specification, evaluation, and interpretation of structural equation models. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 40(1), 8–34.
Barnes, J. H, Jr, & Dotson, M. J. (1990). An exploratory investigation into the nature of offensive television advertising. Journal of Advertising, 19(3), 61–69.
Batra, R., & Ray, M. L. (1986). Affective responses mediating acceptance of advertising. Journal of Consumer Research, 13, 234–249.
Belch, G., Belch, M., & Guolla, M. (2011). Advertising and promotion: An integrated marketing communications perspective, with connect access card fourth Canadian edition. Whitby, ON: McGraw-Hill Ryerson Higher Education.
Bello, D. C., Pitts, R. E., & Etzel, M. J. (1983). The communication effects of controversial sexual content in television programs and commercials. Journal of Advertising, 12(3), 32–42.
Berger, W. (2001). Advertising today. Phaidon Press.
Bloodgood, J., Turnley, W., & Mudrack, P. (2008). The influence of ethics instruction, religiosity, and intelligence on cheating behavior. Journal of Business Ethics, 82, 557–571.
Boddewyn, J. J., & Kunz, H. (1991). Sex and decency issues in advertising: General and international dimensions. Business Horizons, 34(5), 13–20.
Brajnik, G., & Gabrielli, S. (2010). A review of online advertising effects on the user experience. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 26(10), 971–997.
Brown, P. S., & Stayman, M. D. (1992). Antecedents and consequences of attitude toward the ad: A meta-analysis. Journal of Consumer Research, 19(1), 34–51.
Cacioppo, J. T., & Petty, R. E. (1985). Central and peripheral routes to persuasion: The role of message repetition. In Psychological processes and advertising effects (pp. 9–11). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Chen, Z., & Berger, J. (2013). When, why, and how controversy causes conversation. Journal of Consumer Research, 40(3), 580–593.
Chen, Q., Clifford, S. J., & Wells, W. D. (2002). Attitude toward the site II: New information. Journal of Advertising Research, 42(2), 33–46.
Christodoulides, G., Michaelidou, N., & Siamagka, N. (2013). A typology of internet users based on comparative affective states: Evidence from eight countries. European Journal of Marketing, 47(1/2), 153–173.
Christy, T. P., & Haley, E. (2008). The influence of advertising context on perceptions of offense. Journal of Marketing Communications, 14(4), 271–291.
Colwyn, S. (2014). Research summary: Social media marketing effectiveness in 2014. Retrieved January 15, 2015, from http://www.smartinsights.com/social-media-marketing/social-media-governance/social-media-marketing-effectiveness-2014/.
Conroy, S. J., & Emerson, T. L. N. (2004). Business ethics and religion: Religiosity as a predictor of ethical awareness among students. Journal of Business Ethics, 50(4), 383–396.
Crosier, K., & Erdogan, B. Z. (2001). Advertising complainants: Who and where are they? Journal of Marketing Communications, 7(2), 109–120.
Dahl, D. W., Frankenberger, K. D., & Manchanda, R. V. (2003). Does it pay to shock? Reactions to shocking and nonshocking advertising content among university students. Journal of Advertising Research, 43(3), 268–280.
Dao, W. V. T., Le, A. N. H., Chen, J. M. S., & Chen, D. C. (2014). Social media advertising value: The case of transitional economies in Southeast Asia. International Journal of Advertising, 33(2), 271–294.
Davidson, J. D., & Knudsen, D. D. (1977). A new approach to religious commitment. Sociological Focus, 10(2), 151–173.
Dawson, J. F. (2014). Moderation in management research: What, why, when and how. Journal of Business and Psychology, 29, 1–19.
Delener, N. (1994). Religious contrasts in consumer decision behaviour patterns: Their dimensions. European Journal of Marketing, 28(5), 36–53.
Eagleman, A., & Krohn, B. (2012). Sponsorship awareness, attitudes, and purchase intentions of road race series participants. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 21(4), 210–220.
Elliott, M. T., & Speck, P. S. (1998). Consumer perceptions of advertising clutter and its impact across various media. Journal of Advertising Research, 38, 29–42.
Fam, K. S., & Waller, D. S. (2003). Advertising controversial products in the Asia Pacific: What makes them offensive? Journal of Business Ethics, 48(3), 237–250.
Fam, K. S., Waller, D. S., Ong, F. S., & Yang, Z. (2008). Controversial product advertising in China: Perceptions of three generational cohorts. Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 7(6), 461–469.
Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention and behaviour. An introduction to theory and research. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley.
Ford, J. B., & LaTour, M. S. (1993). Differing reactions to female role portrayals in advertising. Journal of Advertising Research, 33, 43–52.
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error: Algebra and statistics. Journal of Marketing Research, 18, 382–388.
Fritz, M. S., Taylor, A. B., & MacKinnon, D. P. (2012). Explanation of two anomalous results in statistical mediation analysis. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 47(1), 61–87.
Gartner, J. (1996). Religious commitment, mental health, and prosocial behavior. Religion and the Clinical Practice of Psychology, 30, 187–214.
Gibbs, P., Ilkan, M., & Pouloukas, S. (2007). The ethics of marketing in Muslim and Christian communities: Insights for global marketing. Equal Opportunities International, 26(7), 678–692.
Giebelhausen, M., & Novak, T. P. (2012). Web advertising: Sexual content on eBay. Journal of Business Research, 65(6), 840–842.
Grazer, W. F., & Keesling, G. (1995). The effect of print advertising’s use of sexual themes on brand recall and purchase intention: A product specific investigation of male responses. Journal of Applied Business Research, 11(3), 47–57.
Greene, J., & Haidt, J. (2002). How (and where) does moral judgement work? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6(12), 517–523.
Ha, L., & McCann, K. (2008). An integrated model of advertising clutter in offline and online media. International Journal of Advertising, 27(4), 569–592.
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis: A global perspective (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Hayduk, L. A., & Littvay, L. (2012). Should researchers use single indicators, best indicators, or multiple indicators in structural equation models? BMC Medical Research Methodology, 12(1), 159.
Hayes, A. F. (2012). PROCESS: A versatile computational tool for observed variable mediation, moderation, and conditional process modeling. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Hayes, A. F., & Scharkow, M. (2013). The relative trustworthiness of inferential tests of the indirect effect in statistical mediation analysis: Does method really matter? Psychological Science, 24(10), 1918–1927.
Huang, L. S., Chou, Y. J., & Lin, C. H. (2008). The influence of reading motives on the responses after reading blogs. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 11(3), 351–355.
Huhmann, B. A., & Mott-Stenerson, B. (2008). Controversial advertisement executions and involvement on elaborative processing and comprehension. Journal of Marketing Communications, 14(4), 293–313.
Hunt, S. D., & Vitell, S. (1986). A general theory of marketing ethics. Journal of Macromarketing, 6(1), 5–16.
Hunt, S. D., & Vitell, S. J. (1993). The general theory of marketing ethics: A retrospective and revision. In S. N. Craig & J. A. Quelch (Eds.), Ethics in marketing (pp. 775–784). Homewood, IL: Irwin Inc.
Hunt, S. D., & Vitell, S. J. (2006). The general theory of marketing ethics: A revision and three questions. Journal of Macromarketing, 26(2), 143–153.
Jagger, S. (2011). Ethical sensitivity: A foundation for moral judgement. Journal of Business Ethics Education, 8, 13–30.
Jarvenpaa, S. L., & Staples, D. S. (2000). The use of collaborative electronic media for information sharing: An exploratory study of determinants. The Journal of Strategic Information Systems, 9(2), 129–154.
Jones, T. M. (1991). Ethical decision making by individuals in organizations: An issue-contingent model. Academy of Management Review, 16, 366–395.
Karson, E. J., & Fisher, R. J. (2005). Reexamining and extending the dual mediation hypothesis in an on-line advertising context. Psychology and Marketing, 22(4), 333–351.
Kay, A., & Furnham, A. (2013). Age and sex stereotypes in British television advertisements. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 2(3), 171.
Kerr, G., Mortimera, K., Dickinson, S., & Waller, D. S. (2012). Buy, boycott or blog: Exploring online consumer power to share, discuss and distribute controversial advertising messages. European Journal of Marketing, 46(3), 387–405.
Lafferty, B. A., & Goldsmith, R. E. (1999). Corporate credibility’s role in consumers’ attitudes and purchase intentions when a high versus a low credibility endorser is used in the ad. Journal of Business Research, 44, 109–116.
Lass, P., & Hart, S. (2004). National cultures, values and lifestyles influencing consumers’ perception towards sexual imagery in alcohol advertising: An exploratory study in the UK, Germany and Italy. Journal of Marketing Management, 20(5–6), 607–623.
LaTour, (1990). Female nudity in print advertising: An analysis of gender differences in arousal and ad response. Psychology and Marketing, 7(1), 65–81.
LaTour, & Henthorne, T. (1994). Ethical judgment of sexual appeals in print advertising. Journal of Advertising, 23(3), 81–90.
Lavine, H., Sweeney, D., & Wagner, S. H. (1999). Depicting women as sex objects in television advertising: Effects on body dissatisfaction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25(8), 1049–1058.
Li, H., Daugherty, T., & Biocca, F. (2002). Impact of 3-D advertising on product knowledge, brand attitude, and purchase intention: The mediating role of presence. Journal of Advertising, 31(3), 43–57.
Luqmani, M., Yavas, U., & Quraeshi, Z. (1987). Advertising in Saudi Arabia: Content and regulation. International Journal of Advertising, 6(1), 59–71.
Lutz, R. J. (1985). Affective and cognitive antecedents of attitude toward the ad: A conceptual framework. In L. F. Alwitt & A. A. Mitchell (Eds.), Psychological processes and advertising effects: Theory, research and application (pp. 45–63). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
MacKenzie, S. B., & Lutz, R. J. (1989). An empirical examination of the structural antecedents of attitude toward the ad in an advertising pretesting context. The Journal of Marketing, 53, 48–65.
MacKenzie, S., Lutz, R., & Belch, G. (1986). The role of attitude toward the ad as a mediator of advertising effectiveness: A test of competing explanations. Journal of Marketing Research, 23, 130–143.
Michaelidou, N., & Moraes, C. (2013). Internet users’ attitudes towards advertising on Facebook. In 2013 World marketing congress, Monash University, Melbourne.
Michell, P., & Al-Mossawi, M. (1999). Religious commitment related to message contentiousness. International Journal of Advertising, 18, 427–444.
Millan, E., & Elliott, R. (2004). Offensive advertising, public policy, and the law: The rulings on the Zagorka case. Journal of Consumer Policy, 27(4), 475–493.
Nielsen. (2012). State of the media: The social media report, Q3 2011. Retrieved December 6, 2012, from http://blog.nielsen.com/nielsenwire/social/2011/.
Nimeh, G. (2007). Digital Essays: The people have spoken By, Iris, campaignlive.co.uk. Retrieved June 30, 2014, from http://www.campaignlive.co.uk/news/668070/.
O’Fallon, M. J., & Butterfield, K. D. (2005). A review of the empirical ethical decision-making literature: 1996–2003. Journal of Business Ethics, 59(4), 375–413.
Park, J., & Stoel, L. (2005). Effect of brand familiarity, experience and information on online apparel purchase. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 33(2), 148–160.
Peterson, R. A., Albaum, G., Merunka, D., Munuera, J. L., & Smith, S. M. (2010). Effects of nationality, gender, and religiosity on business-related ethicality. Journal of Business Ethics, 96(4), 573–587.
Phau, I., & Prendergast, G. (2001). Offensive advertising: A view from Singapore, A preliminary study. Paper presented at the Australia/New Zealand Communication Association (ANZCA) conference, Sydney.
Pilotta, J. J., & Schultz, D. (2005). Simultaneous media experience and synesthesia. Journal of Advertising Research, 45(01), 19–26.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2012). Sources of method bias in social science research and recommendations on how to control it. Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 539–569.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Podsakoff, N. P., & Lee, J.-Y. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903.
Pope, N. K. L., Voges, K. E., & Brown, M. R. (2004). The effect of provocation in the form of mild erotica on attitude to the ad and corporate image: differences between cause-related and product-based advertising. Journal of Advertising, 33(1), 69–82.
Prendergast, G., Ho, B., & Phau, I. (2002). A Hong Kong view of offensive advertising. Journal of Marketing Communications, 8(3), 165–177.
Prendergast, G., & Hwa, H. C. (2003). An Asian perspective of offensive advertising on the Web. International Journal of Advertising, 22, 393–411.
Putrevu, S., & Swimberghek, K. (2013). The influence of religiosity on consumer ethical judgements and responses toward sexual appeals. Journal of Business Ethics, 115(2), 351–365.
Reidenbach, R., & Robin, D. (1990). Toward the development of a multidimensional scale for improving evaluations of business ethics. Journal of Business Ethics, 9(8), 639–653.
Rotfeld, H. J. (2006). Understanding advertising clutter and the real solution to declining audience attention to mass media commercial messages. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 23(4), 180–181.
Rutter, A., & Hine, D. W. (2005). Sex differences in workplace aggression: An investigation of moderation and mediation effects. Aggressive Behavior, 31(3), 254–270.
Sabri, O., & Obermiller, C. (2012). Consumer perception of taboo in ads. Journal of Business Research, 65(6), 869–873.
Schneider, H., Krieger, J., & Bayraktar, A. (2011). The impact of intrinsic religiosity on consumers’ ethical beliefs: Does it depend on the type of religion? A comparison of Christian and Muslim consumers in Germany and Turkey. Journal of Business Ethics, 102(2), 319–332.
Severn, J., Belch, G. E., & Belch, M. A. (1990). The effects of sexual and non-sexual advertising appeals and information level on cognitive processing and communication effectiveness. Journal of Advertising, 19(1), 14–22.
Soley, L. C., & Reid, L. N. (1988). Taking it off: Are models in magazine ads wearing less? Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 65(4), 960–966.
Sood, J. (1995). Religiosity and nationality an exploratory study of their effect on consumer behavior in Japan and the United States. Journal of Business Research, 34, 1–9.
Speck, P. S., & Elliott, M. T. (1997). Predictors of advertising avoidance in print and broadcast media. Journal of Advertising, 26(3), 61–76.
Spence, P. R., Lachlan, K. A., & Westerman, D. (2009). Presence, sex, and bad news: Exploring the responses of men and women to tragic news stories in varying media. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 37(3), 239–256.
Tinkham, S. F., & Reid, L. N. (1988). Sex appeal in advertising revisited: Validation of a typology. Proceedings of the American Academy of Advertising (pp. 118–123). Austin, TX: University of Texas at Austin.
Truong, Y., & Simmons, G. (2010). Perceived intrusiveness in digital advertising: Strategic marketing implications. Journal of Strategic Marketing, 18(3), 239–256.
Varul, M. Z. (2008). After heroism: Religion versus consumerism. Preliminaries for an investigation of Protestantism and Islam under consumer culture. Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations, 19(2), 237–255.
Vermillion, L., Lassar, W., & Winsor, R. (2002). The Hunt–Vitell general theory of marketing ethics: Can it enhance our understanding of principal-agent relationships in channels of distribution? Journal of Business Ethics, 41, 267–285.
Vezina, R., & Paul, O. (1997). Provocation in advertising: A conceptualization and an empirical assessment. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 14(2), 177–192.
Vitell, S. J., Bing, M. N., Davison, H. K., Ammeter, A. P., Garner, B. L., & Novicevic, M. M. (2008). Religiosity and moral identity: The mediating role of self-control. Journal of Business Ethics, 88(4), 601–613.
Vitell, S. J., Singh, J. J., & Paolillo, J. G. P. (2006). Consumers’ ethical beliefs: The roles of money, religiosity and attitude toward business. Journal of Business Ethics, 73(4), 369–379.
Walker, A. G., Smither, J. W., & DeBode, J. (2011). The effects of religiosity on ethical judgments. Journal of Business Ethics, 106(4), 437–452.
Waller, D. (2004). What factors make controversial advertising offensive? Retrieved January 16, 2015, from http://www.researchgate.net/publication/241161860.
Waller, D. (2006). A proposed response model for controversial advertising. Journal of Promotion Management, 11(2/3), 3–16.
Waller, D. S., Fam, K. S., & Erdogan, B. Z. (2005). Advertising of controversial products: a cross-cultural study. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 22(1), 6–13.
Winer, R. S. (2009). New communications approaches in marketing: Issues and research directions. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 23, 108–117.
Wong, H. M. (2007). Religiousness, love of money, and ethical attitudes of Malaysian Evangelical Christians in business. Journal of Business Ethics, 81(1), 169–191.
Worthington, E. L. J., Wade, N. G., Hight, T. L., Ripley, J. S., McCullough, M. E., Berry, J. W., & O’Connor, L. (2003). The religious commitment inventory-10: Development, refinement, and validation of a brief scale for research and counseling. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 50(1), 84–96.
Worthington, E. L., Jr., Wade, N. G., Hight, T. L., Ripley, J. S., McCullough, M. E., Berry, J. W., Schmitt, M. M., Berry, J. T., Bursley, K. H., & O Conner, L. (2012). The religious commitment inventory-10 (RCI-10). Measurement Instrument Database for the Social Science. Retrieved from http://www.midss.ie.
Zhao, X., Lynch, J. G., & Chen, Q. (2010). Reconsidering Baron and Kenny: Myths and truths about mediation analysis. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(2), 197–206.
Zhou, X., Han, Y., & Wang, R. (2012). An empirical investigation on firms’ proactive and passive motivation for bribery in China. Journal of Business Ethics, 118(3), 461–472.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the editor and the three anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments and constructive suggestions that have been immensely useful in development of this article.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kadić-Maglajlić, S., Arslanagić-Kalajdžić, M., Micevski, M. et al. Controversial Advert Perceptions in SNS Advertising: The Role of Ethical Judgement and Religious Commitment. J Bus Ethics 141, 249–265 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-015-2755-5
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-015-2755-5