Biodiversity and Conservation

, Volume 25, Issue 2, pp 205–223

Ecological and socio-economic factors affecting extinction risk in parrots

  • George Olah
  • Stuart H. M. Butchart
  • Andy Symes
  • Iliana Medina Guzmán
  • Ross Cunningham
  • Donald J. Brightsmith
  • Robert Heinsohn
Original Paper
First Online:
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:

Abstract

Parrots (Psittaciformes) are among the most threatened bird orders with 28 % (111 of 398) of extant species classified as threatened under IUCN criteria. We confirmed that parrots have a lower Red List Index (higher aggregate extinction risk) than other comparable bird groups, and modeled the factors associated with extinction risk. Our analyses included intrinsic biological, life history and ecological attributes, external anthropogenic threats, and socio-economic variables associated with the countries where the parrot species occur, while we controlled for phylogenetic dependence among species. We found that the likelihood of parrot species being classified as threatened was less for species with larger historical distribution size, but was greater for species with high forest dependency, large body size, long generation time, and greater proportion of the human population living in urban areas in the countries encompassing the parrots’ home ranges. The severity of extinction risk (from vulnerable to critically endangered) was positively related to the per capita gross domestic product (GDP) of the countries of occurrence, endemism to a single country, and lower for species used as pets. A disproportionate number of 16 extinct parrot species were endemic to islands and single countries, and were large bodied, habitat specialists. Agriculture, hunting, trapping, and logging are the most frequent threats to parrots worldwide, with variation in importance among regions. We use multiple methods to rank countries with disproportionately high numbers of threatened parrot species. Our results promote understanding of global and regional factors associated with endangerment in this highly threatened taxonomic group, and will enhance the prioritization of conservation actions.

Keywords

Extinction risk Anthropogenic threat Psittaciformes IUCN Comparative analysis Socioeconomics 

Supplementary material

10531_2015_1036_MOESM1_ESM.pdf (1.3 mb)
Supplementary material 1 (PDF 1375 kb)
10531_2015_1036_MOESM2_ESM.xlsx (35 kb)
Supplementary material 2 (XLSX 34 kb)

References

  1. Arndt T (2007) Lexicon of Parrots. Arndt Verlag, BrettenGoogle Scholar
  2. Baker-Gabb D (2011) National Recovery Plan for the Superb Parrot Polytelis swainsonii. Department of Sustainability and Environment, MelbourneGoogle Scholar
  3. Beissinger SR, Bucher EH (1992) Can parrots be conserved through sustainable harvesting? Bioscience 42:164–173CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  4. Beissinger SR, Snyder NFR, Thomsen JB, Mulliken TA (1992) Trade in neotropical psittacines and its conservation implications. New world parrots in crisis: solutions from conservation biology. Smithsonian Institution Press, New York and London, pp 221–239Google Scholar
  5. Bennett PM, Owens IPF (1997) Variation in extinction risk among birds: chance or evolutionary predisposition? Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 264:401–408. doi:10.1098/rspb.1997.0057 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. BirdLife International (2014) The BirdLife checklist of the birds of the world: Version 7. http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/userfiles/file/Species/Taxonomy/BirdLife_Checklist_Version_70.zip
  7. BirdLife International and NatureServe (2014) Bird species distribution maps of the world. Version 4.0. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK and NatureServe, Arlington, USA. http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/info/spcdownload
  8. Blaikie P, Jeanrenaud S (1997) Biodiversity and human welfare. Social change and conservation. Earthscan, London, pp 46–70Google Scholar
  9. Brightsmith DJ (2005) Competition, predation and nest niche shifts among tropical cavity nesters: ecological evidence. J Avian Biol 36:74–83CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  10. Brülhart M, Sbergami F (2009) Agglomeration and growth: cross-country evidence. J Urban Econ 65:48–63. doi:10.1016/j.jue.2008.08.003 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  11. Bush ER, Baker SE, Macdonald DW (2014) Global trade in exotic pets 2006–2012. Conserv Biol 28:663–676. doi:10.1111/cobi.12240 CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  12. Butchart SHM (2008) Red List Indices to measure the sustainability of species use and impacts of invasive alien species. Bird Conserv Int 18:S245–S262. doi:10.1017/S095927090800035X CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  13. Butchart SHM et al (2004) Measuring global trends in the status of biodiversity: Red List Indices for birds. PLoS Biol 2:383CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  14. Butchart SHM et al (2005) Using Red List Indices to measure progress towards the 2010 target and beyond. Philos Trans R Soc B 360:255–268. doi:10.1098/rstb.2004.1583 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  15. Butchart SHM et al (2007) Improvements to the Red List Index. PLoS One 2:e140. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000140 PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  16. Butchart SHM et al (2010) Global biodiversity: indicators of recent declines. Science 328:1164–1168. doi:10.1126/science.1187512 CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  17. Cardillo M (2003) Biological determinants of extinction risk: why are smaller species less vulnerable? Anim Conserv 6:63–69CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  18. Cardillo M, Bromham L (2001) Body size and risk of extinction in Australian mammals. Conserv Biol 15:1435–1440CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  19. Cardillo M, Purvis A, Sechrest W, Gittleman JL, Bielby J, Mace GM (2004) Human population density and extinction risk in the world’s carnivores. PLoS Biol 2:e197. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020197 PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  20. Cardillo M et al (2005) Multiple causes of high extinction risk in large mammal species. Science 309:1239–1241. doi:10.1126/science.1116030 CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  21. Cardillo M, Mace GM, Gittleman JL, Jones KE, Bielby J, Purvis A (2008) The predictability of extinction: biological and external correlates of decline in mammals. Proc R Soc B 275:1441–1448. doi:10.1098/rspb.2008.0179 PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  22. Carrete M, Tella JL (2008) Wild-bird trade and exotic invasions: a new link of conservation concern? Front Ecol Environ 6:207–211CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  23. Chang GH, Brada JC (2006) The paradox of China’s growing under-urbanization. Econ Syst 30:24–40. doi:10.1016/j.ecosys.2005.07.002 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  24. CIA (2013) Central Intelligence Agency: The World Factbook. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/. Accessed on June 2013
  25. Cohen B (2006) Urbanization in developing countries: Current trends, future projections, and key challenges for sustainability. Technol Soc 28:63–80. doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2005.10.005 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  26. Collar NJ (1997) Family Psittacidae (parrots). In: Hoyo Jd, Elliott A, Sargatal J (eds) Handbook of the birds of the world, vol 4. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, pp 280-477Google Scholar
  27. Collar NJ (2000) Globally threatened parrots: criteria, characteristics and cures. Int Zoo Yearb 37:21–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  28. Collar NJ, Juniper AT (1992) Dimensions and causes of the parrot conservation crisis. In: Beissinger SR, Snyder NFR (eds) New World parrots in crisis: solutions from conservation biology. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, pp 1–24Google Scholar
  29. Cornelius C et al (2008) Cavity-nesting birds in Neotropical forests: cavities as a potentially limiting resource. Ornitol Neotrop 19:253–268Google Scholar
  30. Cowlishaw G, Dunbar RIM (2000) Primate conservation biology. University of Chicago Press, ChicagoGoogle Scholar
  31. Croxall JP, Butchart SHM, Lascelles B, Stattersfield AJ, Sullivan B, Symes A, Taylor P (2012) Seabird conservation status, threats and priority actions: a global assessment. Bird Conserv Int 22:1–34. doi:10.1017/S0959270912000020 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. Ewers RM, Didham RK (2006) Confounding factors in the detection of species responses to habitat fragmentation. Biol Rev 81:117–142. doi:10.1017/S1464793105006949 CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  33. FAOSTAT (2013) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://faostat3.fao.org/. Accessed on July 2013
  34. Fisher DO, Owens IPF (2004) The comparative method in conservation biology. Trends Ecol Evol 19:391–398. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2004.05.004 CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  35. Fisher DO, Blomberg SP, Owens IPF (2003) Extrinsic versus intrinsic factors in the decline and extinction of Australian marsupials. Proc R Soc Lond B 270:1801–1808. doi:10.1098/rspb.2003.2447 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  36. Forshaw JM (2011) Parrots of the world CSIRO Publishing. Collingwood, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
  37. Freckleton RP, Harvey PH, Pagel M (2002) Phylogenetic analysis and comparative data: a test and review of evidence. Am Nat 160:712–726. doi:10.1086/343873 CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  38. Grahl Wd (1990) Papageien: Lebensweise, Arten, Zucht, 9th edn. Verlag Eugen Ulmer, GermanyGoogle Scholar
  39. Gurevitch J, Padilla DK (2004) Are invasive species a major cause of extinctions? Trends Ecol Evol 19:470–474. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2004.07.005 CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  40. Harris JB et al (2012) Managing the long-term persistence of a rare cockatoo under climate change. J Appl Ecol 49:785–794CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  41. Henderson V (2003) The urbanization process and economic growth: the so-what question. J Econ Growth 8:47–71. doi:10.1023/A:1022860800744 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  42. Hirakuri SR (2003) Can law save the forest?: lessons from Finland and Brazil. CIFOR, BogorGoogle Scholar
  43. Holdsworth M, Starks J (2006) National Recovery Plan for the Orange-bellied Parrot (Neophema chrysogaster). Department of Primary Industries and Water (DPIW), Hobart, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
  44. IMF (2013) International Monetary Fund: world economic outlook database. http://www.imf.org/. Accessed on June 2013
  45. IUCN (2014) The IUCN Red list of threatened species. Version 2014.2. http://www.iucnredlist.org
  46. Jetz W, Thomas GH, Joy JB, Hartmann K, Mooers AO (2012) The global diversity of birds in space and time. Nature 491: 444–448. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v491/n7424/abs/nature11631.html - supplementary-information
  47. Jones M, Fielding A, Sullivan M (2006) Analysing extinction risk in parrots using decision trees. Biodivers Conserv 15:1993–2007. doi:10.1007/s10531-005-4316-1 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  48. Juniper T, Parr M (2003) Parrots: a guide to parrots of the world. A & C Black, USAGoogle Scholar
  49. Kerr JT, Currie DJ (1995) Effects of human activity on global extinction risk. Conserv Biol 9:1528–1538. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1995.09061528.x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  50. Laurance WF, Albernaz AKM, Schroth G, Fearnside PM, Bergen S, Venticinque EM, Da Costa C (2002) Predictors of deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon. J Biogeogr 29:737–748. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2699.2002.00721.x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  51. Laurance WF, Goosem M, Laurance SGW (2009) Impacts of roads and linear clearings on tropical forests. Trends Ecol Evol 24:659–669. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2009.06.009 CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  52. Marsden SJ, Royle K (2015) Abundance and abundance change in the world’s parrots. Ibis 157:219–229. doi:10.1111/ibi.12236 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  53. Martin RO et al (2014) Research and conservation of the larger parrots of Africa and Madagascar: a review of knowledge gaps and opportunities. Ostrich 85:205–233. doi:10.2989/00306525.2014.948943 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  54. McKinney ML (2002) Urbanization, biodiversity, and conservation: the impacts of urbanization on native species are poorly studied, but educating a highly urbanized human population about these impacts can greatly improve species conservation in all ecosystems. Bioscience 52:883–890. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2002)052[0883:ubac]2.0.co;2 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  55. Moomaw RL, Shatter AM (1996) Urbanization and economic development: a Bias toward Large Cities? J Urban Econ 40:13–37. doi:10.1006/juec.1996.0021 CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  56. Müller M (2000) Review of the in situ status of the Great green or Buffon’s macaw Ara ambigua and the European Endangered Species Programme (EEP). Int Zoo Yearb 37:183–190CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  57. Newton I (1994) The role of nest sites in limiting the numbers of hole-nesting birds: a review. Biol Conserv 70:265–276. doi:10.1016/0006-3207(94)90172-4 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  58. Olson DM et al (2001) Terrestrial ecoregions of the world: a new map of life on earth. Bioscience 51:933–938. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2001)051[0933:TEOTWA]2.0.CO;2 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  59. Owens IPF, Bennett PM (2000) Ecological basis of extinction risk in birds: habitat loss versus human persecution and introduced predators. Proc Natl Acad Sci 97:12144–12148. doi:10.1073/pnas.200223397 PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  60. Pain DJ et al (2006) Impact of protection on nest take and nesting success of parrots in Africa, Asia and Australasia. Anim Conserv 9:322–330. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1795.2006.00040.x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  61. Pasquier RF (1980) Conservation of new world parrots: proceedings of the ICBP Parrot Working Group Meeting, St. Lucia, 1980. Smithsonian Institution Press for the International Council for Bird Preservation, USAGoogle Scholar
  62. Payne RW (2009) GenStat. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Computational Statistics 1:255–258. doi:10.1002/wics.32 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  63. Pimm SL et al (2014) The biodiversity of species and their rates of extinction, distribution, and protection. Science. doi:10.1126/science.1246752 PubMedGoogle Scholar
  64. Pires SF (2012) The illegal parrot trade: a literature review. Glob Crime 13:176–190CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  65. Pires S, Clarke RV (2012) Are parrots CRAVED? An analysis of parrot poaching in Mexico. J Res Crime Delinq 49:122–146CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  66. Purvis A, Gittleman JL, Cowlishaw G, Mace GM (2000) Predicting extinction risk in declining species. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 267:1947–1952. doi:10.1098/rspb.2000.1234 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  67. Ribot JC (1999) Decentralisation, participation and accountability in Sahelian forestry: legal instruments of political-administrative control. Africa 69:23–65. doi:10.2307/1161076 CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  68. Snyder N, McGowan P, Gilardi J, Grajal A (2000) Parrots. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan 2000–2004. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UKGoogle Scholar
  69. Sodhi NS, Koh LP, Brook BW, Ng PKL (2004) Southeast Asian biodiversity: an impending disaster. Trends Ecol Evol 19:654–660. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2004.09.006 CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  70. Sodhi N, Posa M, Lee T, Bickford D, Koh L, Brook B (2010a) The state and conservation of Southeast Asian biodiversity. Biodivers Conserv 19:317–328. doi:10.1007/s10531-009-9607-5 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  71. Sodhi NS et al (2010b) Deforestation and avian extinction on tropical landbridge islands. Conserv Biol 24:1290–1298. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2010.01495.x CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  72. Spray SL, McGlothlin KL (2003) Loss of biodiversity. Exploring environmental challenges. Rowman & Littlefield, LanhamGoogle Scholar
  73. Sunderlin WD, Angelsen A, Belcher B, Burgers P, Nasi R, Santoso L, Wunder S (2005) Livelihoods, forests, and conservation in developing countries: an overview. World Dev 33:1383–1402. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2004.10.004 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  74. Taylor B (1996) Sulu Racquet-tail (Prioniturus verticalis), White Cockatoo (Cacatua alba), New Zealand Kaka (Nestor meridionalis), Blue-throated Macaw (Ara glaucogularis), Grey-breasted Parakeet (Pyrrhura griseipectus), Puerto Rican Amazon (Amazona vittata), Orange-bellied Parrot (Neophema chrysogaster), Malherbe’s Parakeet (Cyanoramphus malherbi), Red-throated Lorikeet (Charmosyna amabilis). In: del Hoyo J, Elliott A, Sargatal J, Christie DA, de Juana E (eds) (2013). Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. http://www.hbw.com. Accessed on 12 Nov 2014
  75. Tella JL, Hiraldo F (2014) Illegal and legal parrot trade shows a long-term, cross-cultural preference for the most attractive species increasing their risk of extinction. PLoS One 9:e107546. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0107546 PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  76. Tittensor DP et al (2014) A mid-term analysis of progress toward international biodiversity targets. Science 346:241–244. doi:10.1126/science.1257484 CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  77. Webster A, Price R, Lowe K (2003) Action statement: Swift Parrot (Lathamus discolor). Department of Sustainability and Environment, VictoriaGoogle Scholar
  78. White TH Jr, Collazo JA, Vilella FJ (2005) Survival of captive-reared Puerto Rican parrots released in the Caribbean National Forest. The Condor 107:424–432CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2016

Authors and Affiliations

  • George Olah
    • 1
  • Stuart H. M. Butchart
    • 2
    • 3
  • Andy Symes
    • 2
  • Iliana Medina Guzmán
    • 4
  • Ross Cunningham
    • 1
  • Donald J. Brightsmith
    • 5
  • Robert Heinsohn
    • 1
  1. 1.Fenner School of Environment and SocietyThe Australian National UniversityCanberraAustralia
  2. 2.BirdLife InternationalCambridgeUK
  3. 3.Department of ZoologyUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
  4. 4.Department of Ecology, Evolution and Genetics, Research School of BiologyThe Australian National UniversityCanberraAustralia
  5. 5.Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Schubot Exotic Bird Health CenterTexas A&M UniversityCollege StationUSA

Personalised recommendations