Biodiversity and Conservation

, Volume 24, Issue 6, pp 1443–1471 | Cite as

Assessing biodiversity integrity for the conservation of grazed and burnt grassland systems: avian field metabolic rates as a rapid assessment tool

  • Ian T. Little
  • Philip A. R. Hockey
  • Raymond Jansen
Original Paper
First Online:
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:

Abstract

The South African grassland system is home to over 3,300 plant species, 15 of the country’s 34 endemic mammal species, 12 of the 40 endemic bird species (four of which are globally threatened) and five RAMSAR wetland sites. To assess and address the ecological integrity of farmed grasslands we used process-oriented techniques, including nesting success and field metabolic rates (FMR) of birds, and an adaptation of the multi-taxon biodiversity intactness index (BII) using plant, arthropod and bird diversity data which is a comprehensive tool for assessing ecological integrity using multiple taxonomic groups. Current pastoral management practices have a significant detrimental effect on avian abundance, species richness, nest density and fledgling output. Overall energy turnover and BII values confirm the importance of conserved areas for birds in moist highland grassland systems and support the need for further conservation efforts in grassland systems by both private landowners and reserve managers. Findings based on both avian FMRs and the BII in this study were found to be comparable, lending support to the use of FMR as a rapid assessment technique for assessing ecosystem integrity for future studies of this nature. Scenarios of potential biodiversity improvement with changes in fire management regimes are also presented.

Keywords

Birds Conservation Fire Nesting success Indicator Field metabolic rate 
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

Notes

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Balongile Bhengu and her staff at Verloren Valei Nature Reserve for her support and assistance with historical data. To the farm managers and owners, Thys, the Grobelaars, Bafana and Job of Sakhelwe and Roger Croall, thanks for allowing the research to be conducted on their land and hopefully it can assist in your future decision making. To Luciano Makaka, Maxwell Boakye, Thabo Mabuza, Thomas Birch, Jessica da Silva, Grant Cannon and the others who assisted in the field, if not only for the company, thanks for the help. My gratitude also goes to all the others who have helped along the way from Dullstroom weather station (Charl Strydom) to the people of Dullstroom, Colin Everson for the data he provided, Thomas Birch for computer assistance. For financial support we would like to thank the funders SANBI (John Donaldson), the Rufford Small Grant Foundation, the National Research Foundation of South Africa, Tshwane University of Technology and the University of Cape Town.

References

  1. Akaike H (1973) Information theory and an extension of the maximum likelihood principle. In: Petran BN, Csaki F (eds) International symposium on information theory, 2nd edn. Akademiai Kiado, Budapest, pp 267–281Google Scholar
  2. Bai ZG, Dent DL (2007) Land degradation and improvement in South Africa. 1. Identification by remote sensing. Report 2007/03, ISRIC – World Soil Information, WageningenGoogle Scholar
  3. Batáry P, Báldi A, Sarolta E (2006) Grassland versus non-grassland bird abundance and diversity in managed grasslands: local, landscape and regional scale effects. Biodivers Conserv 16:871–881CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  4. Battin J (2004) When good animals love bad habitats: ecological traps and the conservation of animal populations. Conserv Biol 18:1482–1491CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  5. Biaggini M, Consorti R, Dapporto L, Dellacase M, Paggetti E, Corti C (2007) The taxonomic level order as a possible tool for rapid assessment of Arthropod diversity in agricultural landscapes. Agric Ecosyst Environ 122:183–191CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. Bibby CJ (1999) Making the most of birds as environmental indicators. Ostrich 70:81–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  7. Both C, Bouwhuis S, Lessells CM, Visser ME (2006) Climate change and population declines in a long-distance migratory bird. Nature 441:81–83PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  8. Brodmann PA, Reyer HU (1999) Nestling provisioning in water pipits (Anthus spinoletta): do parents go for specific nutrients or profitable prey? Oecologia 120:506–514CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  9. Burnham KP, Anderson DR (2002) Model selection and multimodel inference: a practical information-theoretic approach. Springer, New YorkGoogle Scholar
  10. Carbutt C, Tau M, Stephens A, Escott B (2011) The conservation status of temperate grasslands in southern Africa. Grassroots 11:7–23Google Scholar
  11. Cressa C (1999) Dry mass estimation of tropical aquatic insects using different short-term preservation methods. Revista de Viol Trop 47:1–7Google Scholar
  12. Dale VH, Beyeler SC (2001) Challenges in the development and use of ecological indicators. Ecol Indic 1:3–10CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  13. Damm GR (2002) The conservation game, saving Africa’s biodiversity. Safari Club International Africa Chapter, KwaZulu-NatalGoogle Scholar
  14. Darkoh MBK (2003) Regional perspectives on agriculture and biodiversity in the drylands of Africa. J Arid Environ 54:261–279CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  15. Dennis P, Skartveit J, McCracken I, Pakeman RJ, Beaton K, Kunaver A, Evans MD (2008) The effects of livestock grazing on foliar arthropods associated with bird diet in upland grasslands of Scotland. J Appl Ecol 45:279–287CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. Dinneen LC, Blakesley BC (1973) Algorithm AS 62: generator for the sampling distribution of the Mann–Whitney U Statistic. Appl Stats 22:269–273CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  17. Dinsmore SJ, White GC, Knopf FL (2002) Advanced techniques for modeling avian nest survival. Ecology 83:3476–3488CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  18. Donald F, Pisano G, Rayment MD, Pain D (2002) The Common Agricutural Policy, EU enlargement and conservation of Europe’s farmland birds. Agric Ecosyst Environ 89:167–182CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  19. Donovan TM, Thompson FR, Faaborg J, Probst JR (1995) Reproductive success of migratory birds in habitat sources and sinks. Conserv Biol 9:1380–1395CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  20. Driver A, Maze K, Rouget M, Lombard AT, Nel J, Turpie JK, Cowling RM, Desmet P, Goodman P, Harris J, Jonas Z, Reyers B, Sink K, Strauss T (2005) National spatial biodiversity assessment 2004: Priorities for biodiversity conservation in South Africa. Strelitzia 17. South African National Biodiversity Institute, PretoriaGoogle Scholar
  21. Duelli P, Obrist MK (1998) In search of the best correlates for local organismal biodiversity in cultivated areas. Biodivers Conserv 7:297–309CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  22. Duelli P, Obrist MK (2003) Biodiversity indicators: the choice of values and measures. Agric Ecosyst Environ 98:87–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  23. Dufrêne M, Legendre P (1997) Species assemblages and indicator species: the need for a flexible asymmetrical approach. Ecol Monogr 67:345–366Google Scholar
  24. Engle DM, Fuhlendorf SD, Roper A, Leslie DM Jr (2008) Invertebrate community response to a shifting mosaic of habitat. Rangel Ecol Manag 61:55–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  25. Folse LJJ (1982) An analysis of avifauna-resource relationships on the Serengeti plains. Ecol Monogr 52:111–127CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  26. Fondell TF, Ball IJ (2004) Density and success of bird nests relative to grazing on western Montana grasslands. Biol Conserv 117:203–213CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  27. Fox SJC, Hockey PAR (2007) Impacts of a South African coastal golf estate on shrubland bird communities. S Afr J Sci 103:27–34Google Scholar
  28. Fretwell SD (1972) Populations in a seasonal environment. Princeton University Press, PrincetonGoogle Scholar
  29. Fretwell SD, Lucas HL (1970) On territorial behaviour and other factors influencing habitat distribution in birds. Acta Biotheor 19:16–36CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  30. Fuhlendorf SD, Engle DM, Kerby J, Hamilton R (2008) Pyric Herbivory: rewilding landscapes through the recoupling of fire and grazing. Conserv Biol 23:588–598PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  31. Gaston KJ, Blackburn TM (1995) Mapping biodiversity using surrogates for species richness: macro-scales and New World Birds. Proc R Soc Lond B 262:335–341CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. Gottfried BM, Thompson CF (1978) Experimental analysis of nest predation in an old-field habitat. Auk 95:304–312Google Scholar
  33. Hilty J, Merenlender A (2000) Faunal indicator taxa selection for monitoring ecosystem health. Biol Conserv 92:185–197CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  34. Hilty J, Merenlender A (2003) Studying biodiversity on private lands. Conserv Biol 17:132–137CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  35. Hockey PAR, Dean WRJ, Ryan PG (eds) (2005) Roberts—Birds of Southern Africa, 7th edn. Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape TownGoogle Scholar
  36. Hurlbert SH (1984) Pseudoreplication and the design of ecological field experiments. Ecol Monogr 54:187–211CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  37. Jansen R, Little RM, Crowe TM (1999) Implications of grazing and burning on grasslands on the sustainable use of francolins (Francolinus spp.) and overall bird conservation in the highlands of Mpumalanga province, South Africa. Biodivers Conserv 8:587–602CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  38. Jansen R, Makaka L, Little IT, Dippenaar-Schoeman A (2013) Response of ground-dwelling spider assemblages (Arachnida, Araneae) to Montane grassland management practices in South Africa. Insect Conserv Divers 6:72–89. doi: 10.1111/icad.12013 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  39. Jeanneret P, Schupbach B, Luka H (2003a) Quantifying the impact of landscape and habitat features on biodiversity in cultivated landscapes. Agric Ecosyst Environ 98:311–320CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  40. Jeanneret P, Schupbach B, Pfiffner L, Walter T (2003b) Arthropod reaction to landscape and habitat features in agricultural landscapes. Landsc Ecol 18:253–263CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  41. Jehle G, Yackel Adams AA, Savidge JA, Skagen SK (2004) Nest survival estimation: a review of alternatives to the Mayfield estimator. Condor 106:472–484CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  42. Johnson DH (1979) Estimating nest success: the Mayfield method and an alternative. Auk 96:651–661Google Scholar
  43. Knopf FL, Sedgwick JA, Cannon RW (1988) Guild structure of a riparian avifauna relative to seasonal cattle grazing. J Wildl Manag 52:280–290CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  44. Landres PB, Verner J, Thomas JW (1988) Ecological uses of vertebrate indicator species: a critique. Conserv Biol 2:316–328CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  45. Little RM (1992) Population genetics, behavioural ecology and management of the Grey-winged Francolin Francolinus africanus. Ph.D. thesis, University of Cape Town, Cape TownGoogle Scholar
  46. Little IT (2011) Bird reproductive success and faunal habitat selection as tools for understanding the impacts of land-use management on moist highland grassland biodiversity in south africa. Ph.D. thesis, University of Cape Town, Cape TownGoogle Scholar
  47. Little RM, Crowe TM (1993) The breeding biology of Greywing Francolin Francolinus africanus and its implication for hunting and management. S Afr J Zool 28:6–25Google Scholar
  48. Little IT, Hockey PAR, Jansen R (2013) A burning issue: fire overrides grazing as a disturbance driver for South African grassland bird and arthropod assemblage structure and diversity. Biol Conserv 158:258–270CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  49. Liversidge R (1962) Distribution of birds in relation to vegetation. Ann Cape Prov Mus 1962:143–151Google Scholar
  50. Lloyd P, Little RM, Crowe TM (2000) Investigator effects on the nesting success of arid-zone birds. J Field Ornithol 71:227–235CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  51. Low AB, Rebelo AG (1996) Vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. A companion to the vegetation map of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, PretoriaGoogle Scholar
  52. Mace GM (2005) An index of intactness. Nature 434:32–33PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  53. Manry DE, Knight RS (1986) Lightning density and burning frequency in South African vegetation. Vegetatio 66:67–76Google Scholar
  54. Martin TE (1998) Are microhabitat preferences of coexisting species under selection and adaptive? Ecology 97:656–670CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  55. Martin TG, Possingham HP (2005) Predicting the impact of livestock grazing on birds using foraging height data. J Appl Ecol 42:400–408CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  56. Mayfield HF (1961) Nesting success calculated from exposure. Wilson Bull 73:255–261Google Scholar
  57. Mayfield HF (1975) Suggestions for calculating nests success. Wilson Bull 87:456–466Google Scholar
  58. McCoy TD, Ryan MR, Kurzejeski EW, Burger LWJ (1999) Conservation reserve program: source or sink habitat for grassland birds in Missouri? J Wildl Manag 63:530–538CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  59. McCune B, Mefford MJ (2006) PC-ORD. Multivariate Analysis of Ecological Data. Version 5.10. MjM Software, Gleneden Beach, OregonGoogle Scholar
  60. Meissner HH, Hofmeyr HS, Van Rensburg WJJ, Pienaar JP (1983) Classification of livestock for realistic prediction of substitution values in terms of a biologically defined Large Stock Unit. Technical Communication No. 175. Department of Agriculture, Republic of South Africa, BloemfonteinGoogle Scholar
  61. Mentis MT (1981) The effects of scale of burn on the densities of grassland francolins in the Natal Drakensberg. Biol Conserv 21:247–261CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  62. Milchunas DG, Lauenroth WK, Burke IC (1998) Livestock grazing: animal and plant biodiversity of shortgrass steppe and the relationship to ecosystem function. Oikos 83:65–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  63. Muchai M (2002) Going through the motions: the impact of frequent fires and grazing pressure on reproduction by montane grassland birds. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Cape Town, Cape TownGoogle Scholar
  64. Mucina L, Rutherford MC (eds) (2006) The vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Strelitzia 19. South African National Biodiversity Institute, PretoriaGoogle Scholar
  65. Nagy KA (2005) Review: field metabolic rate and body size. J Exp Biol 208:1621–1625PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  66. Nagy KA, Girard IA, Brown TK (1999) Energetics of free-ranging mammals, reptiles, and birds. Ann Rev Nutr 19:147–277CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  67. Norton DA (2000) Conservation, biology and private land: shifting the focus (Editorial). Conserv Biol 14:1221–1223CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  68. Noss RF (1989) Indicators for monitoring biodiversity: a hierarchical approach. Conserv Biol 4:355–364CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  69. O’Connor TG, Kuyler P (2009) Impact of land use on the biodiversity integrity of the moist sub-biome of the grassland biome, South Africa. J Environ Manag 90:384–395CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  70. O’Connor TG (2005) Influence of land use on plant community composition and diversity in Highland Sourveld grassland in the southern Drakensberg, South Africa. J Appl Ecol 42:975–988CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  71. Opdam P, Verboom J, Pouwels R (2003) Landscape cohesion: an index for the conservation potential of landscapes for biodiversity. Landsc Ecol 18:113–126CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  72. Öster M, Persson K, Eriksson O (2008) Validation of plant diversity indicators in semi natural grasslands. Agric Ecosyst Environ 125:65–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  73. Owen-Smith N, Danckwerts JE (1997) Herbivory. In: Cowling RM, Richardson DM, Pierce SM (eds) Vegetation of Southern Africa. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 397–420Google Scholar
  74. Perkins DW, Vickery PD, Shriver WG (2003) Spatial dynamics of source-sink habitats: effects on rare grassland birds. J Wildl Manag 67:588–599CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  75. Powell AFLA (2008) Responses of breeding birds in tallgrass prairie to fire and cattle grazing. J Field Ornithol 79:41–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  76. Prendergast JR, Eversham BC (1997) Species richness covariance in higher taxa: empirical tests of the biodiversity indicator concept. Ecography 20:210–216CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  77. Raimondo D, Von Staden L, Foden W, Victor JE, Helme NA, Turner RC, Kamundi DA, Manyama PA (2009) Red list of south african plants (2009). Strelitzia 25. South African National Biodiversity Institute, PretoriaGoogle Scholar
  78. Ricketts TH (2001) The matrix matters: effective isolation in fragmented landscapes. Am Nat 158:87–99PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  79. Rouget M, Cowling RM, Vlok J, Thompson M, Balmford A (2006) Getting the biodiversity intactness index right: the importance of habitat degradation data. Global Change Biol 12:2032–2036CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  80. SANBI (2014) Grazing and burning guidelines: managing grasslands for biodiversity and livestock production. Compiled by Lechmere-Oertel, RG South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria, p 42Google Scholar
  81. Schaefer HC, Eshiamwata GW, Munyekenye FB, Griebeler EM, Bohning-Gaese K (2005) Nest predation is little affected by parental behaviour and nest site in two African Sylvia warblers. J Ornithol 146:167–175CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  82. Scholes RJ, Biggs R (2005) A biodiversity intactness index. Nature 434:45–49PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  83. Siegel S (1956) Nonparametric statistics for the behavioural sciences. McGraw-Hill, New YorkGoogle Scholar
  84. Söderström BO, Svensson B, Vessby K, Glimskär A (2001) Plants, insects and birds in semi-natural pastures in relation to local habitat and landscape factors. Biodivers Conserv 10:1839–1863CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  85. Spottiswoode CN, Wondafrash M, Gabremichael MN, Dellelegn Abebe Y, Mwangi MAK, Collar NJ, Dolman PM (2009) Rangeland degradation is poised to cause Africa’s first recorded avian extinction. Anim Conserv 12:249–257CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  86. StatSoft Inc (2009) STATISTICA (data analysis software system), version 9. www.statsoft.com
  87. Suarez-Seoane S, Osborne PE, Baudry J (2002) Responses of birds of different biogeographic origins and habitat requirements to agricultural land abandonment in northern Spain. Biol Conserv 105:333–344CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  88. Sutter B, Ritchison G (2005) Effects of grazing on vegetation structure, prey availability, and reproductive success of grasshopper sparrows. J Field Ornithol 76:345–351CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  89. Tainton NM (1981) Veld and pasture management in South Africa. University of Natal Press, PietermaritzburgGoogle Scholar
  90. Tainton NM (1999) Veld management in South Africa. University of Natal Press, PietermaritzburgGoogle Scholar
  91. Tarboton WR (1997) South Africa’s grasslands: the Cinderella biome, wither grasslands? The way forward. Afr Bird Bird 27:1–3Google Scholar
  92. Theobald DM, Spies T, Kline J, Maxwell B, Hobbs N, Dale V (2005) Ecological support for rural land-use planning. Ecol Appl 15:1906–1914CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  93. Thomas WA (ed) (1972) Indicators of environmental quality. Plenium Press, New YorkGoogle Scholar
  94. Tsukamoto J (1988) Dry/preserved wet weight ratio of soil macro-animals in forests. Ecol Res 3:61–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  95. Van Cauwenbergh N, Biala K, Bielders C, Brouckaert V, Franchois L, Garcia Cidad V, Hermy M, Mathijs J, Reijnders J, Sauvenier X, Valckx J, Vanclooster M, Van der Veken B, Wauters E, Peeters A (2007) SAFE—a hierarchical framework for assessing the sustainability of agricultural systems. Agric Ecosyst Environ 120:229–242CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  96. White GC, Burnham KP (1999) Program MARK: survival estimation from populations of marked animals. Bird Study 46:120–139CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  97. Wiens JA (1973) Pattern and process in grassland bird communities. Ecol Monogr 43:237–270CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  98. Wiens JA (1974) Habitat heterogeneity and avian community structure in North American grasslands. Am Midl Nat 91:195–213CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  99. Wiens JA (1994) Habitat fragmentation: island v landscape perspectives on bird conservation. Ibis 137:97–104CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  100. Williams PH, Gaston KJ (1994) Measuring more of biodiversity—can higher-taxon richness predict wholescale species richness? Biol Conserv 67:211–217CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  101. With KA, King AW (2001) Analysis of landscape sources and sinks: the effect of spatial pattern on avian demography. Biol Conserv 100:75–88CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  102. Wretenberg J, Part T, Berg A (2010) Changes in local species richness of farmland birds in relation to land-use changes and landscape structure. Biol Conserv 143:375–381CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  103. Zipkin EF, Royle JA, Dawson DK, Bates S (2010) Multi-species occurrence models to evaluate the effects of conservation and management actions. Biol Conserv 143:479–484CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2015

Authors and Affiliations

  • Ian T. Little
    • 1
    • 3
    • 4
  • Philip A. R. Hockey
    • 2
  • Raymond Jansen
    • 2
  1. 1.Percy FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology, DST/NRF Centre of ExcellenceUniversity of Cape TownRondeboschSouth Africa
  2. 2.Department of Environmental, Water and Earth SciencesTshwane University of TechnologyPretoriaSouth Africa
  3. 3.Endangered Wildlife TrustJohannesburgSouth Africa
  4. 4.HowickSouth Africa

Personalised recommendations