Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Wild orchid tuber collection in Iran: a wake-up call for conservation

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Biodiversity and Conservation Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Wild orchids are traditionally harvested as Salep and used in traditional medicine and ice-cream production in Iran. Recently however, illegal harvest of wild orchids for export appears to have grown. This study aimed to: (1) determine the diversity of harvested wild orchid species and their collection sites in Iran; and (2) study the current harvest status and trade chain and volume to estimate the total orchid plant extraction from natural populations. Field surveys of collectors and market surveys of traders were conducted to establish the diversity of collected species, to identify harvest hotspots, and to document harvesting and trade volumes. Sixteen species and subspecies from 7 genera of Orchidaceae are collected for their tubers. Based on estimates from the 2013 April to June harvest season more than 24.5 tons of fresh tubers were collected from three districts in Golestan province alone. It is estimated that this amount of tuber requires the lethal destructive harvesting of 5.5 –6.1 million orchids, with a market value of 320,000 USD. In the Tehran Bazar Salep trade during May–July 2013 was 1.9 tons of dried tubers, with estimated retail value of 310,000 USD. Current orchid collection practices in Iran, which have soared in recent years due to international demand, do not seem sustainable as all tubers are collected destructively. To preserve orchid populations, in the longterm, establishment of specific Orchid Conservation Areas and introduction of sustainable production practices, could alleviate harvesting pressure. In the midterm, development of a DNA barcoding-based molecular identification system could help to monitor and control illegal trade. In the near term, effective implementation of collection bans in excessively harvested areas and strengthening of current regulations are necessary to avoid the catastrophic effects of harvesting on orchid populations, as has been observed in Turkey.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Names for all species are provided in Table 1. Species not included in Table 1 have author names included in the manuscript body.

References

  • Amin G (2005) The most common traditional medicinal plants of Iran. Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran

    Google Scholar 

  • Arditti J (1992) Fundamentals of orchid biology. Wiley, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Bulpitt CJ (2005) The uses and misuses of orchids in medicine. QJM 98:625–631. doi:10.1093/qjmed/hci094

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Challe JF, Price LL (2009) Endangered edible orchids and vulnerable gatherers in the context of HIV/AIDS in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 5:41. doi:10.1186/1746-4269-5-41

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davenport TRB, Ndangalasi HJ (2003) An escalating trade in orchid tubers across Tanzania’s Southern Highlands: assessment, dynamics and conservation implications. Oryx 37:55–61. doi:10.1017/S0030605303000127

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Forests, Range and Watershed Management Organization (FRWO) (2013) Executive policies on protection, restoration, development and utilization of forests and rangelands byproducts and export of medicinal and industrial plants in 2013 (http://www.edari.frw.org.ir/Portals/41/bakh92/b15123.pdf)

  • Hossain MM (2011) Therapeutic orchids: traditional uses and recent advances–an overview. Fitoterapia 82:102–140. doi:10.1016/j.fitote.2010.09.007

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kasparek M, Grimm U (1999) European trade in Turkish Salep with special reference to Germany. Econ Bot 53:396–406. doi:10.1007/BF02866718

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kasulo V, Mwabumba L, Munthali C (2009) A review of edible orchids in Malawi. J Hortic For 1:133–139

    Google Scholar 

  • Renz J (1978) Flora iranica. Part 126: orchidaceae. Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna

    Google Scholar 

  • Schippmann U, Leaman DJ, Cunningham AB (2006) A comparison of cultivation and wild collection of medicinal and aromatic plants under sustainability aspects. In: Bogers RJ, Craker LE, Lange D (eds) Medicinal and aromatic plants. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 75–95

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Sezik E (2002) Turkish orchids and salep. Acta Pharm Turc 44:151–157

    Google Scholar 

  • Sezik E (2006) Destroying of Ophrys species to obtain Salep in turkey. J Eur Orchid 38:290

    Google Scholar 

  • Shahsavari A (2008) Flora of Iran. Part 57: orchidaceae. Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands, Tehran

    Google Scholar 

  • Starin D (2012) Salepi extinction, Salepi survival: how a change in ingredients could help safeguard Orchids. The bulletin of the American Orchid Society, Orchids, pp 490–494

    Google Scholar 

  • Subedi A, Kunwar B, Choi Y et al (2013) Collection and trade of wild-harvested orchids in Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 9(1):64

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tamer CE, Karaman B, Copur OT (2006) A traditional Turkish beverage: salep. Food Rev Int 22:43–50

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tekinşen KK, Güner A (2010) Chemical composition and physicochemical properties of tubera salep produced from some Orchidaceae species. Food Chem 121:468–471. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.12.066

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors are indebted to local plant collectors and traders for their cordiality and cooperation. We also gratefully acknowledge the Carl Tryggers Foundation for Scientific Research for providing a postdoctoral research stipend to AG (through HdB). HdB is a research fellow at Naturalis financed by the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO). Further support for fieldwork was gratefully received from an Anne S. Chatham fellowship of the Garden Club of America (AG), Sven och Dagmar Saléns stiftelse (HdB), Lars Hiertas Minne (HdB) and the Swedish Science Council Swedish Research Links program (HdB).

In Memoriam: Farzaneh Naghibi passed away in early 2014. She was an inspiration to all of us, as well as to a generation of Iranian researchers in ethnobotany and pharmacognosy. She will be remembered for her focus on quality and innovative research and her openhearted hospitality. She was an active coach for young researchers both male and female, providing opportunities for aspiring students to fulfill their ambitions, show their dedication, and develop their independence.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden

    Abdolbaset Ghorbani & Hugo de Boer

  2. Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden, The Netherlands

    Barbara Gravendeel & Hugo de Boer

  3. University of Applied Science, Leiden, The Netherlands

    Barbara Gravendeel

  4. Traditional Medicine and Materia Medica Research Center, Shaheed Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

    Abdolbaset Ghorbani & Farzaneh Naghibi

  5. The Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

    Hugo de Boer

Authors
  1. Abdolbaset Ghorbani
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Barbara Gravendeel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Farzaneh Naghibi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Hugo de Boer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Hugo de Boer.

Additional information

Communicated by Danna J Leaman.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Ghorbani, A., Gravendeel, B., Naghibi, F. et al. Wild orchid tuber collection in Iran: a wake-up call for conservation. Biodivers Conserv 23, 2749–2760 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-014-0746-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-014-0746-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation