Abstract
The challenges for successful launching of a profitable phage therapeutic product include intellectual property rights, safety issues, reproducibility, stability and robustness of the product. A successful and marketable product would be a highly purified bacteriophage preparation containing one or several fully characterized phages, accompanied by optimized methods of administration and backed up by properly controlled efficacy and safety studies.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abedon ST (2006) Phage ecology. In: Calendar R (ed) The bacteriophages, 2nd edn. New York: Oxford University Press. pp 37–46
Abshire TG, Brown JE, Ezzell JW (2005) Production and validation of the use of gamma phage for identification of Bacillus anthracis. J Clin Microbiol 43:4780–4788
Ackermann H-W, Tremblay D, Moineau S (2004) Long-Term bacteriophage preservation. World Federation for Culture Collections Newsletter 38:35–40
Boratynski J, Syper D, Weber-Dabrowska B et al (2004) Preparation of endotoxin-free bacteriophages. Cell Mol Biol Lett 9:253–259
Breitbart M, Hewson I, Felts B et al (2003) Metagenomic analyses of an uncultured viral community from human feces. J Bacteriol 185:6220–6223
Brüssow H, Canchaya C, Hardt WD (2004) Phages and the evolution of bacterial pathogens: from genomic rearrangements to lysogenic conversion. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 68:560–602
Canchaya C, Proux C, Fournous G et al (2003) Prophage genomics. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 67:238–276
Carlton RM, Noordman WH, Biswas B et al (2005) Bacteriophage P100 for control of Listeria monocytogenes in foods: genome sequence, bioinformatic analyses, oral toxicity study, and application. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 43:301–312
Clark JR, March JB (2006) Bacteriophages and biotechnology: vaccines, gene therapy and antibacterials. Trends Biotechnol 24:212–218
Edwards RA, Rohwer F (2005) Viral metagenomics. Nat Rev Microbiol 3:504–510
Eyer L, Pantucek R, Zdrahal Z et al (2006) Structural protein analysis of the polyvalent staphylococcal bacteriophage 812. Proteomics
Figueroa-Bossi N, Uzzau S, Maloriol D et al (2001) Variable assortment of prophages provides a transferable repertoire of pathogenic determinants in Salmonella. Mol Microbiol 39:260–271
Freeman VJ (1951) Studies on the virulence of bacteriophage-infected strains of Corynebacterium diphtheriae. J Bacteriol 61:675–688
Furuse K (1987) Distribution of coliphages in the general environment: general considerations. In: Goyal SM, Gerba CP, Bitton G (eds) Phage ecology. New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp 87–124
Garcia-Aljaro C, Muniesa M, Jofre J et al (2006) Newly identified bacteriophages carrying the stx2g Shiga toxin gene isolated from Escherichia coli strains in polluted waters. FEMS Microbiol Lett 258:127–135
Gommers-Ampt JH, Borst P (1995) Hypermodified bases in DNA. FASEB J 9:1034–1042
Hambly E, Suttle CA (2005) The viriosphere, diversity, and genetic exchange within phage communities. Curr Opin Microbiol 8:444–450
Hatfull GF, Pedulla ML, Jacobs-Sera D et al (2006) Exploring the mycobacteriophage metaproteome: phage genomics as an educational platform. PLoS Genet 2:e92
Hendrix RW, Smith MC, Burns RN et al (1999) Evolutionary relationships among diverse bacteriophages and prophages: all the world’s a phage. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:2192–2197
Ho TD, Figueroa-Bossi N, Wang M et al (2002) Identification of GtgE, a novel virulence factor encoded on the Gifsy-2 bacteriophage of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. J Bacteriol 184:5234–5239
Hodgson DA (2000) Generalized transduction of serotype 1/2 and serotype 4b strains of Listeria monocytogenes. Mol Microbiol 35:312–323
Kennedy JEJ, Bitton G (1987) Bacteriophages in foods. In: Goyal SM, Gerba CP, Bitton G (eds). Phage ecology. New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp 289–316
Kiljunen S, Hakala K, Pinta E et al (2005) Yersiniophage φR1–37 is a tailed bacteriophage having a 270 kb DNA genome with thymidine replaced by deoxyuridine. Microbiology 151:4093–4102
Marza JA, Soothill JS, Boydell P et al (2006) Multiplication of therapeutically administered bacteriophages in Pseudomonas aeruginosa infected patients. Burns 32:644–646
Matsuzaki S, Rashel M, Uchiyama J et al (2005) Bacteriophage therapy: a revitalized therapy against bacterial infectious diseases. J Infect Chemother 11:211–219
McGrath S, Fitzgerald GF, van Sinderen D (2004) The impact of bacteriophage genomics. Curr Opin Biotechnol 15:94–99
Merril CR, Scholl D, Adhya S (2006) Phage therapy. In: Calendar R (ed). The bacteriophages. 2nd edn. New York: Oxford University Press. pp 725–741
Plunkett G 3rd, Rose DJ, Durfee TJ et al (1999) Sequence of Shiga toxin 2 phage 933W from Escherichia coli O157:H7: Shiga toxin as a phage late-gene product. J Bacteriol 181:1767–1778
Radany EH, Dornfeld KJ, Sanderson RJ et al (2000) Increased spontaneous mutation frequency in human cells expressing the phage PBS2-encoded inhibitor of uracil-DNA glycosylase. Mutat Res 461:41–58
Sakaguchi Y, Hayashi T, Kurokawa K et al (2005) The genome sequence of Clostridium botulinum type C neurotoxin-converting phage and the molecular mechanisms of unstable lysogeny. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102:17472–17477
Sander M, Schmieger H (2001) Method for host-independent detection of generalized transducing bacteriophages in natural habitats. Appl Environ Microb 67:1490–1493
Sitkiewicz I, Nagiec MJ, Sumby P et al (2006) Emergence of a bacterial clone with enhanced virulence by acquisition of a phage encoding a secreted phospholipase A2. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103:16009–16014
Sturino JM, Klaenhammer TR (2006) Engineered bacteriophage-defence systems in bioprocessing. Nat Rev Microbiol 4:395–404
Takahashi I, Marmur J (1963) Replacement of thymidylic acid by deoxyuridylic acid in the deoxyribonucleic acid of a transducing phage for Bacillus subtilis. Nature 197:794–795
Toth I, Schmidt H, Dow M et al (2003) Transduction of porcine enteropathogenic Escherichia coli with a derivative of a shiga toxin 2-encoding bacteriophage in a porcine ligated ileal loop system. Appl Environ Microb 69:7242–7247
Uchida T, Gill DM, Pappenheimer AM Jr (1971) Mutation in the structural gene for diphtheria toxin carried by temperate phage. Nat New Biol 233:8–11
Wagner PL, Waldor MK (2002) Bacteriophage control of bacterial virulence. Infect Immun 70:3985–3993
Waldor MK, Mekalanos JJ (1996) Lysogenic conversion by a filamentous phage encoding cholera toxin. Science 272:1910–1914
Van Tassel RL, Yousten AA (1976) Response of Bacillus thuringiensis to bacteriophage CP-51. Can J Microb 22:583–586
van Wamel WJ, Rooijakkers SH, Ruyken M et al (2006) The innate immune modulators staphylococcal complement inhibitor and chemotaxis inhibitory protein of Staphylococcus aureus are located on β-hemolysin-converting bacteriophages. J Bacteriol 188:1310–1315
Warren RA (1980) Modified bases in bacteriophage DNAs. Ann Rev Microb 34:137–158
Wedgwood RJ, Ochs HD, Davis SD (1975) The recognition and classification of immunodeficiency diseases with bacteriophage φX174. Birth Defects 11:331–338
Wommack KE, Colwell RR (2000) Virioplankton: viruses in aquatic ecosystems. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 64:69–114
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Skurnik, M., Pajunen, M. & Kiljunen, S. Biotechnological challenges of phage therapy. Biotechnol Lett 29, 995–1003 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10529-007-9346-1
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10529-007-9346-1