Behavior Genetics

, Volume 35, Issue 4, pp 417–433 | Cite as

Heritability of Word Recognition in Middle-Aged Men Varies as a Function of Parental Education

  • William S. Kremen
  • Kristen C. Jacobson
  • Hong Xian
  • Seth A. Eisen
  • Brian Waterman
  • Rosemary Toomey
  • Michael C. Neale
  • Ming T. Tsuang
  • Michael J. Lyons
Article
Received:
Accepted:

Abstract

Although it is of lifelong importance, reading ability is studied primarily in children and adolescents. We examined variation in word recognition in 347 middle-aged male twin pairs. Overall heritability (a2) was 0.45, and shared environmental influences (c2) were 0.28. However, parental education moderated heritability such that a2 was 0.21 at the lowest parental education level and 0.69 at the highest level; c2 was 0.52 and 0.00, respectively. This constitutes a parental education × environment interaction. The higher heritability was due to a decrease in the magnitude of shared environmental factors, rather than an increase in the magnitude of genetic factors. Other cognitive studies have reported gene × environment interactions, but patterns may differ as a function of age or specific cognitive abilities. Our results suggest that shared environmental factors in families with low parental education have long-lasting effects on word recognition ability, well beyond any critical period for developing reading proficiency.

Keywords

Heritability middle-aged moderator reading ability twin study word recognition parental education 
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Akaike, H. 1987Factor analysis and AICPsychometrika52317332MathSciNetGoogle Scholar
  2. Baker, L., Scher, D., Mackler, K. 1997Home and family Influences on motivations for readingEducational Psychologist326982Google Scholar
  3. Blake, J. 1986Number of siblings, family background, and the process of educational attainmentSoc. Biol.33521PubMedGoogle Scholar
  4. Boulanger, G. 1981Who Goes to War?Egendorf, A.Kadushin, C.Laufer, R. S.Rothbart, G.Sloan, L. eds. Legacies of Vietnam: Comparative Adjustment of Veterans and Their Peers, Vol 4. Long-term Stress Reactions: Some Causes, Consequences, and Naturally Occurring Support SystemsU.S. Government Printing OfficeWashington, DC494515Google Scholar
  5. Bronfenbrenner, U., Ceci, S. J. 1994Nature-nurture reconceptualized in developmental perspective: a biological modelPsychol. Rev.101568586PubMedGoogle Scholar
  6. Brooks, A., Fulker, D. W., DeFries, J. C. 1990Reading performance and general cognitive ability: a multivariate genetic analysis of twin dataPerson. Individ. Diff.11141146Google Scholar
  7. Cardon, L. R., DiLalla, L. F., Plomin, R., DeFries, J. C., Fulker, D. W. 1990Genetic correlations between reading performance and IQ in the Colorado Adoption ProjectIntelligence14245257Google Scholar
  8. Cherny, S. S., Cardon, L. R., Fulker, D. W., DeFries, J. C. 1992Differential heritability across levels of cognitive abilityBehav. Gen.22153162Google Scholar
  9. Eaves, L. J. 1982The utility of twinsAnderson, V. E.Hauser, W. A.Penry, J. K.Sing, C. F. eds. Genetic basis of epilepsiesRaven PressNew York249276Google Scholar
  10. Eisen, S. A., Neuman, R., Goldberg, J., Rice, J., True, W. 1989Determining zygosity in the Vietnam Era Twin Registry: an approach using questionnairesClin. Genet.35423432PubMedGoogle Scholar
  11. Eisen, S. A., True, W. R., Goldberg, J., Henderson, W., Robinette, C. D. 1987The Vietnam Era Twin (VET) Registry: method of constructionActa Genet. Med. Gemellol. (Roma).366166Google Scholar
  12. Fischbein, S. 1980IQ and social classIntelligence45163Google Scholar
  13. Fisher, R. A. 1918The correlation between relatives on the supposition of Mendelian inheritanceTranslations R. Soc. Edinburgh52399433Google Scholar
  14. Fulker, D. W. (1978). Multivariate extensions of a biometrical model of twin data. In W. E. Nance (ed.), Progress in clinical and biological research, Vol 24a, New York: Alan R. Liss.Google Scholar
  15. Gayán, J., Olson, R. K. 2003Genetic and environmental influences on individual differences in printed word recognitionJ. Exp. Child Psychol.8497123PubMedGoogle Scholar
  16. Heath, A. C., Berg, K., Eaves, L. J., Solaas, M. H., Corey, L. A., Sundet, J., Mangus, P., Nance, W. E. 1985Educational policy and the heritability of educational attainmentNature314734736PubMedGoogle Scholar
  17. Henderson, W. G., Eisen, S. E., Goldberg, J., True, W. R., Barnes, J. E., Vitek, M. 1990The Vietnam Era Twin Registry: a resource for medical researchPublic Health Rep.105368373PubMedGoogle Scholar
  18. Kendler, K. S., Neale, M. C., Kessler, R. C., Heath, A. C., Eaves, L. J. 1993The lifetime history of major depression in women: reliability of diagnosis and heritabilityArch. Gen. Psychiatry50862870Google Scholar
  19. Knopik, V. S., DeFries, J. C. 1999Etiology of covariation between reading and mathematics performance: a twin studyTwin Res.2226234CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  20. Knopik, V. S., Smith, S. D., Cardon, L. R., Pennington, B., Gayán, J., Olson, R. K., DeFries, J. C. 2002Differential genetic etiology of reading component processes as a function of IQBehav. Gen.32181198CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  21. Leslie, L., Allen, L. 1999Factors that predict success in an early literacy intervention programReading Research Quarterly34294318CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  22. Lonigan, C. J., Whitehurst, G. J. 1998Relative efficacy of parent and teacher involvement in a shared-reading intervention for preschool children from low-income backgroundsEarly Childhood Research Quarterly13262290CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  23. Matheny, A. P., Dolan, A. B. 1974A twin study of genetic influences in reading achievementJ Learn. Disabil.799102Google Scholar
  24. Neale, M. C., Boker, S., Xie, G., Maes, H. 1999Mx: Statistical modeling5Medical College of Virginia, Department of PsychiatryRichmond, VAGoogle Scholar
  25. Neale, M. C., Boker, S. M., Maes, H. H. 2002Mx: Structural Modeling6Virginia Commonwealth University, Department of PsychiatryRichmond, VAGoogle Scholar
  26. Neale, M. C., Cardon, L. R. 1992Methodology for genetic studies of twins and familiesKluwer Academic PublishersDordrecht, The NetherlandsGoogle Scholar
  27. Neale, M. C., Eaves, L. J., Kendler, K. S., Hewitt, J. K. 1989Bias in correlations from selected samples of relatives: the effects of soft selectionBehav. Gen.19163169Google Scholar
  28. Nichols, R. C., Bilbro, W. C. J. 1966The diagnosis of twin zygosityActa Genet. State. Med.16265275Google Scholar
  29. Peeters, H., Van Gestel, S., Vlietinck, R., Derom, C., Derom, R. 1998Validation of a telephone zygosity questionnaire in twins of known zygosityBehav. Gen.28159163Google Scholar
  30. Purcell, S. 2002Variance component models for gene-environment interaction in twin analysesTwin Res.5554571PubMedGoogle Scholar
  31. Rowe, D. C., Jacobson, K. C., Vanden Oord, E. J. C. G. 1999Genetic and environmental influences on vocabulary IQ: parental education level as moderatorChild Dev.7011511162PubMedGoogle Scholar
  32. Sattlier, J. M. 1988Assessment of children3Jerome M. SattlerSan Diego, CAGoogle Scholar
  33. Scarborough, H. S., Dobrich, W. 1994On the efficacy of reading to preschoolersDev. Rev.14245302Google Scholar
  34. Scarr, S. 1992Developmental theories for the 1990s: Development and individual differencesChild Dev.63119PubMedGoogle Scholar
  35. Scarr-Salapatek, S. 1971Race, social class, and IQScience17412851295PubMedGoogle Scholar
  36. Sénéchal, M., LeFevre, J. 2002Parental involvement in the development of children’s reading skill: a five-year longitudinal studyChild Dev.73445460PubMedGoogle Scholar
  37. Silventoinen, K., Kaprio, J., Lahelma, E. 2000Genetic and environmental contributions to the association between body height and educational attainment: a study of adult Finnish twinsBehav. Gen.30477485Google Scholar
  38. Stevenson, J., Graham, P., Fredman, G., McLoughlin, V. 1987A twin study of genetic influences on reading a spelling ability and disabilityJ. Child Psychol. Psychiatry2822947PubMedGoogle Scholar
  39. Tambs, K., Sundet, J. M., Magnus, P., Berg, K. 1989Genetic and environmental contributions to the covariance between occupational status, educational attainment, and IQ: a study of twinsBehav. Gen.19209222Google Scholar
  40. Thompson, L. A., Detterman, D. K., Plomin, R. 1991Association between cognitive abilities and scholastic achievement: genetic overlap, but environmental differencesPsychol. Sci.2158165Google Scholar
  41. Tsuang, M. T., Bar, J. L., Harley, R. M., Lyons, M. J. 2001The Harvard twin study of substance abuse: what we have learnedHarv. Rev. Psychiatry9267279PubMedGoogle Scholar
  42. Turkheimer, E., Haley, A., Waldron, M., D’Onofrio, B., Gottesman, I. I. 2003Socieconomic status modifies heritability of IQ in young childrenPsychol. Sci.14623628PubMedGoogle Scholar
  43. Wadsworth, S., Fulker, D., DeFries, J. 1999Stability of genetic and environmental influences on reading performance at 7 and 12 years of age in the Colorado Adoption ProjectInt. J. Behav. Dev. Psychol.23319332Google Scholar
  44. Wadsworth, S. J., DeFries, J. C., Fulker, D. W., Plomin, R. 1995Cognitive ability and academic achievement in the Colorado Adoption Project: A multivariate genetic analysis of parent-offspring and sibling dataBehav. Gen.25115Google Scholar
  45. Wilkinson, G. S. 1993WRAT3: wide range achievement test manualWide Range, IncWilmington, DEGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. 2005

Authors and Affiliations

  • William S. Kremen
    • 1
    • 8
  • Kristen C. Jacobson
    • 2
  • Hong Xian
    • 3
  • Seth A. Eisen
    • 3
    • 4
  • Brian Waterman
    • 5
  • Rosemary Toomey
    • 6
  • Michael C. Neale
    • 2
  • Ming T. Tsuang
    • 1
    • 6
  • Michael J. Lyons
    • 6
    • 7
  1. 1.Department of Psychiatry, Institute of Behavioral GenomicsUniversity of CaliforniaSan Diego, La JollaUSA
  2. 2.Virginia Institute for Psychiatric and Behavioral GeneticsVirginia Commonwealth UniversityRichmondUSA
  3. 3.Department of Internal MedicineWashington University School of MedicineSt. LouisUSA
  4. 4.Department of PsychiatryWashington University School of MedicineSt. LouisUSA
  5. 5.Waterman Research SolutionsSt. LouisUSA
  6. 6.Harvard Institute of Psychiatric Epidemiology and GeneticsBostonUSA
  7. 7.Department of PsychologyBoston UniversityBostonUSA
  8. 8.Department of PsychiatryUniversity of CaliforniaSan DiegoLa JollaUSA

Personalised recommendations