How Children Learn About Sex: A Cross-Species and Cross-Cultural Analysis
Original Paper
First Online:
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
- 1.2k Downloads
- 6 Citations
Abstract
Scattered and not widely disseminated evidence from primatology, anthropology, and history of childhood sexuality support the hypothesis that throughout much of human behavioral evolution that human children have learned about sex through observing parental sexuality and then imitating it in sexual rehearsal play with peers. Contemporary theories of psychosexual development have not considered the possibility that young children are predisposed to learn about sex through observational learning and sexual rehearsal play during early childhood, a primate-wide trait that is conserved in humans but suppressed in contemporary contexts.
Keywords
Childhood sexuality Psychosexual development Sex education Childhood sex playReferences
- Anderson, C. A., & Bielart, C. (1990). Adolescent/adult copulatory behavior in nonhuman primates. In J. R. Feierman (Ed.), Pedophilia: Biosocial dimensions (pp. 176–200). New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Archibald, E. (2007). Incest between adults and children in the medieval world. In G. Rousseau (Ed.), Children and sexuality: From the Greeks to the great war (pp. 85–107). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
- Bagemihl, B. (1999). Biological exuberance: Animal homosexuality and natural diversity. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press.Google Scholar
- Boehm, C. (1999). Hierarchy in the forest: The evolution of egalitarian behavior. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
- Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss, Vol. 1: Attachment. New York, NY: Basic Books.Google Scholar
- Browning, C., & Laumann, E. (1997). Sexual contact between children and adults: A life course perspective. American Sociological Review, 62, 540–560. doi: 10.2307/2657425.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Bullough, V. L. (2004). Children and adolescents as sexual beings: A historical overview. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 13, 447–459. doi: 10.1016/j.chc.2004.02.012.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Cummings, E. M., Zahn-Waxler, C., & Radke-Yarrow, M. (1981). Young children’s responses to expressions of anger and affection by others in the family. Child Development, 52, 1274–1282. doi: 10.2307/1129516.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- de Graaf, H., & Rademakers, J. (2006). Sexual development of prepubertal children. Journal of Psychology & Human Sexuality, 18(1), 1–21. doi: 10.1300/J056v18n01_01.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- de Waal, F. B. M. (1987). Tension regulation and non-reproductive functions of sex in captive bonobos (Pan paniscus). National Geographic Research, 3, 318–335.Google Scholar
- de Waal, F. B. M. (1988). The communicative repertoire of captive bonobos (Pan paniscus), compared to that of chimpanzees. Behaviour, 106, 183–251. doi: 10.1163/156853988X00269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- de Waal, F. B. M. (1990). Sociosexual behavior used for tension regulation in all age and sex combinations among bonobos. In J. R. Feierman (Ed.), Pedophilia: Biosocial dimensions (pp. 378–393). New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- de Waal, F. B. M. (2007). Chimpanzee politics: Power and sex among apes (25th ed.). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
- de Waal, F. B. M., & Lanting, F. (1997). Bonobo: The forgotten ape. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
- Dixson, A. F. (1998). Primate sexuality: Comparative studies of the prosimians, monkeys, apes, and human beings. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
- DuBois, C. (1944). The people of Alor. New York, NY: Harper.Google Scholar
- Edwards, A. R., & Todd, J. D. (1991). Homosexual behaviour in wild white-handed gibbons (Hylobates lar). Primates, 32, 231–236. doi: 10.1007/BF02381180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I. (1989). Human ethology. New York, NY: Aldine de Gruyter.Google Scholar
- Einbender, A. J., & Friedrich, W. N. (1989). Psychological functioning and behavior of sexually abused girls. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 155–157. doi: 10.1037//0022-006X.57.1.155.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Erickson, M. T. (1993). Rethinking Oedipus: An evolutionary perspective of incest avoidance. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 411–416. doi: 10.1176/ajp.150.3.411.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Erikson, P. (2002). Several fathers in one’s cap: Polyandrous conception among the Panoan Matis. In S. Beckerman & P. Valentine (Eds.), Cultures of multiple fathers: The theory and practice of partible paternity in lowland South America (pp. 123–136). Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida.Google Scholar
- Fagot, B. I. (1995). Psychosocial and cognitive determinants of early gender-role development. Annual Review of Sex Research, 6, 1–31. doi: 10.1080/10532528.1995.10559900.Google Scholar
- Fishman, S. (1982). The history of childhood sexuality. Journal of Contemporary History, 17, 269–283. doi: 10.1177/002200948201700204.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Flinn, M. V. (1981). Uterine versus agnatic kinship variability and associated cousin marriage preferences: An evolutionary biological analysis. In R. D. Alexander & D. W. Tinkle (Eds.), Natural selection and social behavior (pp. 439–475). New York, NY: Chiron Press.Google Scholar
- Ford, C. S., & Beach, F. (1951). Patterns of sexual behavior. New York, NY: Harper and Row.Google Scholar
- Foucault, M. (1990). The history of sexuality (Vol. 1). New York, NY: Vintage Books.Google Scholar
- Frankham, J. (2006). Sexual antimonies and parent/child sex education: Learning from foreclosure. Sexualities, 9, 236–254. doi: 10.1177/1363460706063120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Frayser, S. G. (2003). Cultural dimensions of childhood sexuality in the United States. In J. Bancroft (Ed.), Sexual development in childhood (pp. 255–273). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
- Freud, S. (1905). Three essays on the theory of sexuality. In J. Strachey (Ed.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 7, pp. 125–245). London, England: Hogarth Press.Google Scholar
- Freud, S. (1907). The sexual enlightenment of children. In J. Strachey (Ed.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 9, pp. 129–140). London, England: Hogarth Press.Google Scholar
- Freud, S. (1908). On the sexual theories of children. In J. Strachey (Ed.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 9, pp. 207–226). London, England: Hogarth Press.Google Scholar
- Freud, S. (1918). From the history of an infantile neurosis. In J. Strachey (Ed.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 17, pp. 1–124). London, England: Hogarth Press.Google Scholar
- Freud, S. (1930). Civilization and its discontents. In J. Strachey (Ed.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 21, pp. 57–146). London, England: Hogarth Press.Google Scholar
- Friedrich, W. N., Fisher, J., Broughton, D., Houston, M., & Shafran, C. R. (1998). Normative sexual behavior in children: A contemporary sample. Pediatrics, 101(4), e9. doi: 10.1542/peds.101.4.e9.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Friedrich, W. N., Grambsch, P., Broughton, D., Kuiper, J., & Beilke, R. L. (1991). Normative sexual behavior in children. Pediatrics, 88, 456–464.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Gordon, B. N., Schroeder, C. S., & Abrams, J. M. (1990). Age and social-class differences in children’s knowledge of sexuality. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 19, 33–43. doi: 10.1207/s15374424jccp1901_5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Gray, P. B., & Anderson, K. G. (2010). Fatherhood: Evolution and human paternal behavior. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
- Grocke, M., Smith, M., & Graham, P. (1995). Sexually abused and nonabused mothers’ discussions about sex and their children’s sexual knowledge. Child Abuse and Neglect, 19, 985–996. doi: 10.1016/0145-2134(95)00060-L.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Harlow, H. F. (1962). The heterosexual affectional system in monkeys. American Psychologist, 17, 1–9. doi: 10.1037/h0043587.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Hart, S., & Carrington, H. (2002). Jealousy in 6-month-old infants. Infancy, 3, 395–402. doi: 10.1207/S15327078IN0303_6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Hashimoto, C., & Furuichi, T. (1994). Social role and development of non-copulatory sexual behavior of wild bonobos. In R. W. Wrangham, W. C. McGrew, F. B. M. de Waal, & P. G. Heltne (Eds.), Chimpanzee cultures (pp. 155–168). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
- Herdt, G., & McClintock, M. (2000). The magical age of 10. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 29, 587–606. doi: 10.1023/A:1002006521067.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Holmberg, A. R. (1969). Nomads of the long bow: The Siriono of eastern Bolivia. Garden City, NY: The Natural History Press.Google Scholar
- Holmes, J. (2007). Sense and sensuality: Hedonic intersubjectivity and the erotic imagination. In D. Diamond, S. J. Blatt, & J. D. Lichtenberg (Eds.), Attachment and sexuality (pp. 137–159). New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
- Hoyt, M. F. (1979). Primal-scene experiences: Quantitative assessment of an interview study. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 8, 225–245. doi: 10.1007/BF01541240.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Hyde, A., Carney, M., Drennan, J., Butler, M., Lohan, M., & Howlett, E. (2010). The silent treatment: Parents’ narratives of sexuality education with young people. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 12, 359–371. doi: 10.1080/13691050903514455.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Kendall-Tackett, K. A., Williams, L. M., & Finkelhor, D. (1993). The impact of sexual abuse on children: A review and synthesis of recent empirical studies. Psychological Bulletin, 113, 164–180. doi: 10.1037//0033-2909.113.1.164.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B., & Martin, C. E. (1948). Sexual behavior in the human male. Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders Company.Google Scholar
- Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B., Martin, C. E., & Gebhard, P. H. (1953). Sexual behavior in the human female. Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders Company.Google Scholar
- Kluckhohn, C. (1947). Some aspects of Navaho infancy and early childhood. In G. Roheim (Ed.), Psychoanalysis and the social sciences (Vol. 1, pp. 37–86). New York, NY: International Universities Press.Google Scholar
- Knafo, A., Zahn-Waxler, C., Van Hulle, C., Robinson, J. L., & Rhee, S. H. (2008). The developmental origins of a disposition toward empathy: Genetic and environmental contributions. Emotion, 8, 737–752. doi: 10.1037/a0014179.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Konner, M. (2005). Hunter-gatherer infancy and childhood: The !Kung and others. In B. S. Hewlett & M. E. Lamb (Eds.), Hunter-gatherer childhoods: Evolutionary, developmental, and cultural perspectives (pp. 19–64). New Brunswick, NJ: Aldine Transaction.Google Scholar
- Konner, M. (2010). The evolution of childhood: Relationships, emotion, mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
- Konner, M., & Shostak, M. (1986). Adolescent pregnancy and childbearing: An anthropological perspective. In J. B. Lancaster & B. A. Hamburg (Eds.), School-age pregnancy and parenthood: Biosocial dimensions (pp. 325–346). New York, NY: Aldine de Gruyter.Google Scholar
- Lamb, S., & Coakley, M. (1993). “Normal” childhood sexual play and games: Differentiating play from abuse. Child Abuse and Neglect, 17, 515–526. doi: 10.1016/0145-2134(93)90026-2.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Leighton, D., & Kluckhohn, C. (1947). Children of the people: The Navaho individual and his development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Leitenberg, H., Greenwald, E., & Tarran, M. J. (1989). The relation between sexual activity among children during preadolescence and/or early adolescence and sexual behavior and sexual adjustment in young adulthood. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 18, 299–313. doi: 10.1007/BF01541950.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Lewis, R. J., & Janda, L. H. (1988). The relationship between adult sexual adjustment and childhood experiences regarding exposure to nudity, sleeping in the parental bed, and parental attitudes toward sexuality. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 17, 349–362. doi: 10.1007/BF01541812.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Lieberman, D., & Lobel, T. (2012). Kinship on the Kibbutz: Coresidence duration predicts altruism, personal sexual aversions and moral attitudes among communally reared peers. Evolution and Human Behavior, 33, 26–34. doi: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2011.05.002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Maccoby, E. (Ed.). (1966). The development of sex differences. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
- Malinowski, B. (1927). Sex and repression in savage society. London, England: Routledge and Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
- Malinowski, B. (1929). The sexual lives of savages in North-western Melanesia. London, England: Routledge and Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
- Marlowe, F. (2010). The Hazda: Hunter-gatherers of Tanzania. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
- Martin, K. A. (2009). Normalizing heterosexuality: Mothers’ assumptions, talks, and strategies with young children. American Sociological Review, 74, 190–207. doi: 10.1177/000312240907400202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Martinson, F. M. (1976). Eroticism in infancy and childhood. Journal of Sex Research, 12, 251–262. doi: 10.1080/00224497609550945.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Masciuch, S., & Kienapple, K. (1993). The emergence of jealousy in children 4 months to 7 years of age. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 10, 421–435. doi: 10.1177/0265407593103008.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Mead, M. (1935). Sex and temperament in three primitive societies. New York, NY: William Morrow.Google Scholar
- Messing, S. D. (1985). Highland plateau Amhara of Ethiopia. New Haven, CT: Human Relations Area Files.Google Scholar
- Money, J. (1990). Pedophilia: A specific instance of new phylism theory as applied to paraphilic lovemaps. In J. R. Feierman (Ed.), Pedophilia: Biosocial dimensions (pp. 445–463). New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Montgomery, H. (2007). Child sexual abuse: An anthropological perspective. In G. Rousseau (Ed.), Children and sexuality: From the Greeks to the great war (pp. 319–347). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
- Montgomery, H. (2009). An introduction to childhood: Anthropological perspectives on children’s lives. Oxford, England: Wiley.Google Scholar
- Morris, P. H., Doe, C., & Godsell, E. (2008). Secondary emotions in non-primate species? Behavioural reports and subjective claims by animal owners. Cognition and Emotion, 22, 3–20. doi: 10.1080/02699930701273716.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Mukherjea, C. (1962). The Santals. Calcutta, India: A. Mukherjee & Company.Google Scholar
- Okami, P., Olmstead, R., & Abramson, P. R. (1997). Sexual experiences in early childhood: 18-year longitudinal data from the UCLA family lifestyles project. Journal of Sex Research, 34, 339–347. doi: 10.1080/00224499709551902.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Okami, P., Olmstead, R., Abramson, P. R., & Pendleton, L. (1998). Early childhood exposure to parental nudity and scenes of parental sexuality (“primal scenes”): An 18-year longitudinal study of outcome. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 27, 361–384. doi: 10.1023/A:1018736109563.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Palmert, M. R., Hayden, D. L., Mansfield, M. J., Crigler, J. F, Jr, Crowley, W. F, Jr, Chandler, D. W., … Boepple, P. A. (2001). The longitudinal study of adrenal maturation during gonadal suppression: Evidence that adrenarche is a gradual process. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 86, 4536–4542. 10.1210/jc.86.9.4536.
- Paul, R. A. (1982). The Tibetan symbolic world: Psychoanalytic explorations. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
- Phipps-Yonas, S., Yonas, A., Turner, M., & Kauper, M. (1992). Children and sexuality: The observations and opinions of family daycare providers. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
- Pusey, A. E. (1990). Mechanisms of inbreeding avoidance in nonhuman primates. In J. R. Feierman (Ed.), Pedophilia: Biosocial dimensions (pp. 201–220). New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Remer, T., Boye, K. R., Hartmann, M. F., & Wudy, S. A. (2005). Urinary markers of adrenarche: Reference values in healthy subjects, aged 3–18 years. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 90, 2015–2021. doi: 10.1210/jc.2004-1571.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Reynolds, M. A., Herbenick, D. L., & Bancroft, J. (2003). The nature of childhood sexual experiences: Two studies 50 years apart. In J. Bancroft (Ed.), Sexual development in childhood (pp. 134–155). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
- Rosario, M., Schrimshaw, E. W., Hunter, J., & Braun, L. (2006). Sexual identity development among lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths: Consistency and change over time. Journal of Sex Research, 43, 46–58. doi: 10.1080/00224490609552298.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Rosenfeld, A., Bailey, R., Siegel, B., & Bailey, G. (1986). Determining incestuous contact between parent and child: Frequency of children touching parents’ genitals in a nonclinical population. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 25, 481–484. doi: 10.1016/S0002-7138(10)60005-2.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Rosenfeld, A., Siegal-Gorelick, B., Haavik, D., Duryea, M., Wenegrat, A., Martin, J., … Bailey, R. (1984). Parental perceptions of children’s modesty: A cross-sectional survey of ages two to ten years. Psychiatry, 47, 351–365.Google Scholar
- Rosenfeld, A., Siegel, B., & Bailey, R. (1987). Family bathing patterns: Implications for cases of alleged molestation and for pediatric practice. Pediatrics, 79, 224–229.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Rosenfeld, A. A., Smith, C. R., Wenegrat, M. A., Brewster, M. A., & Haavik, D. K. (1980). The primal scene: A study of prevalence. American Journal of Psychiatry, 137, 1426–1428. doi: 10.1176/ajp.137.11.1426.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Rousseau, G. (2007). Introduction. In G. Rousseau (Ed.), Childhood and sexuality: From the Greeks to the great war (pp. 1–40). London, England: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Schuhrke, B. (2000). Young children’s curiosity about people’s genitals. In T. G. M. Sandfort & J. Rademakers (Eds.), Childhood sexuality: Normal sexual behavior and development (pp. 27–48). New York, NY: Haworth Press.Google Scholar
- Shafran, C. R. (1995). Normal sexual behavior of young children: Contextual and family influences. Doctoral dissertation. Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database (UMI No. 9529086).Google Scholar
- Shepher, J. (1983). Incest: A biosocial view. New York, NY: Academic Press.Google Scholar
- Shor, E., & Simchai, D. (2009). Incest avoidance, the incest taboo, and social cohesion: Revisiting Westermarck and the case of the Israeli kibbutzim. American Journal of Sociology, 114, 1803–1842. doi: 10.1086/597178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Shostak, M. (1976). A !Kung woman’s memories of childhood. In R. B. Lee & I. DeVore (Eds.), Kalahari hunter-gatherers: Studies of the !Kung San and their neighbors (pp. 246–277). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
- Shostak, M. (1981). Nisa: The life and words of a !Kung woman. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
- Thigpen, J. W. (2009). Early sexual behavior in a sample of low-income, African American children. Journal of Sex Research, 46, 67–79. doi: 10.1080/00224490802645286.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Tomasello, M. (1999). The cultural origins of human cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
- Tschopik, H. (1951). The Aymara of Chucuito. New York, NY: American Museum of Natural History.Google Scholar
- Tutin, C. E. G. (1979). Mating patterns and reproductive strategies in a community of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 6, 29–38. doi: 10.1007/bf00293242.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Westermarck, E. (1926). A short history of marriage. New York, NY: Macmillan.Google Scholar
- White, S., Halpin, B. M., Strom, G. A., & Santilli, G. (1988). Behavioral comparisons of young sexually abused, neglected, and nonreferred children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 17, 53–58. doi: 10.1207/s15374424jccp1701_7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Wolf, A. P. (1995). Sexual attraction and childhood association: A Chinese brief for Edward Westermarck. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
- Zucker, K. J. (2003). Discussant. In J. Bancroft (Ed.), Sexual development in childhood (pp. 54–61). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Copyright information
© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015