Archives of Women's Mental Health

, Volume 12, Issue 3, pp 123–134 | Cite as

The impact of maternal psychopathology on child–mother attachment

Review Article
First Online:
Received:
Accepted:

Abstract

This review aims to consider evidence for the impact of maternal psychopathology on the child’s attachment to the mother, and the role of this in mediating the known transmission of developmental and clinical risk to children. The studies reviewed focus on mothers with depression and psychotic disorder. A number of studies (mainly of mothers with depression) demonstrate an association between insecure/disorganised infant attachments and severe maternal psychopathology, whether chronic or current, in the presence of comorbid disorder, maternal insecure or unresolved attachment state of mind, trauma/loss, or low parenting sensitivity. Whether such effects last into middle childhood, however, is unclear. Our understanding of the role of attachment in determining developmental trajectories in this group is at an early stage. Some evidence suggests that attachment may have a role in mediating the intergenerational transmission of internalising and other problems in this group, although the presence of co-occurring contextual risk factors may account for the variability in findings. A multifactorial longitudinal approach is needed to elucidate such factors. However, the current literature highlights which subgroups are likely to be vulnerable and provides an evidence-based rationale for taking an attachment-based approach to intervention in this group.

Keywords

Parent–child relations Maternal depression Psychosis Parenting Developmental outcomes 
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

References

  1. Abbott R, Dunn VJ, Robling SA, Paykel ES (2004) Long-term outcome of offspring after maternal severe puerperal disorder. Acta Psychiatr Scand 110:365–373PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  2. Abel KM, Webb R, Salmon M, Wan MW, Appleby L (2005) The prevalence and predictors of parenting outcomes in a cohort of mothers with schizophrenia admitted for joint psychiatric care in England. J Clin Psychiatry 66:781–789PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  3. Abela JR, Hankin BL, Haigh EA, Adams P, Vinokuroff T, Trayhern L (2005) Interpersonal vulnerability to depression in high-risk children: the role of insecure attachment and reassurance seeking. J Clin Child Adoles Psychology 34:182–192CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  4. Abrams KY, Rifkin A, Hesse E (2006) Examining the role of parental frightened/frightening subtypes in predicting disorganized attachment within a brief observational procedure. Dev Psychopathol 18:345–361PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  5. Ainsworth MDS, Blehar M, Waters E, Wall S (1978) Patterns of attachment. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJGoogle Scholar
  6. Atkinson L, Paglia A, Coolbear J, Niccols A, Parker KCH, Guger S (2000) Attachment security: a meta-analysis of maternal mental health correlates. Clin Psychol Rev 20:1019–1040PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  7. Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Van Ijzendoorn MH, Juffer F (2003) Less is more: meta-analyses of sensitivity and attachment interventions in early childhood. Psychol Bull 129:195–215PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  8. Belsky J, Fearon RMP (2002) Infant–mother attachment security, contextual risk, and early development: a moderational analysis. Dev Psychopathol 14:295–310CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  9. Berlin LJ, Amaya-Jackson L, Greenberg MT (2005) Enhancing early attachments: theory, research, intervention, and policy. Guilford, New YorkGoogle Scholar
  10. Berry K, Barrowclough C, Wearden A (2007) A review of the role of adult attachment style in psychosis: unexplored issues and questions for further research. Clin Psychol Rev 27:458–475PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  11. Bokhorst CL, Bakermans-Kranenburg MI, Fearon P, Van Ijzendoorn MH, Fonagy P, Schuengel C (2003) The importance of shared environment in mother–infant attachment security: a behavioural genetic study. Child Dev 74:1769–1782PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  12. Bosquet M, Egeland B (2001) Associations among maternal depressive symptomatology, state of mind and parent and child behaviors: Implications for attachment-based interventions. Attach Hum Dev 3:173–199PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  13. Bowlby J (1984) Attachment and loss: vol 1. Attachment (revised ed). Penguin, LondonGoogle Scholar
  14. Bretherton I, Ridgeway D (1990) Story completion task to assess young children’s internal working models of child and parents in the attachment relationship. In: Greenberg MT, Cicchetti D, Cummings EM (eds) Attachment in the preschool years: theory, research, and intervention. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp 300–308Google Scholar
  15. Burman B, Mednick SA, Machon RA, Parnas J, Schulsinger F (1987) Children at high risk for schizophrenia: parent and offspring perceptions of family relationships. J Abnorm Psychology 96:364–366CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. Campbell SB, Brownell CA, Hungerford A, Speiker SJ, Mohan R, Blessing JS (2004) The course of maternal depressive symptoms and maternal sensitivity as predictors of attachment security at 36 months. Dev Psychopathol 16:231–252PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  17. Cardno AG, Marshall EJ, Coid B, Macdonald AM, Ribchester TR, Davies NJ, Venturi P et al (1999) Heritability estimates for psychotic disorders: the Maudsley twin psychosis series. Arch Gen Psychiatry 56:162–168PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  18. Carter AS, Garrity-Rokous E, Chazan-Cohen R, Little C, Briggs-Gowan MJ (2001) Maternal depression and comorbidity: predicting early parenting, attachment security, and toddler social–emotional problems and competences. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 40:18–26PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  19. Cassidy J, Woodhouse SS, Cooper G, Hoffman K, Powell B, Rodenberg M (2005) Examination of the precursors of infant attachment security: Implications for early intervention and intervention research. In: Berlin LJ, Amaya-Jackson L, Greenberg MT (eds) Enhancing early attachments: theory, research, intervention, and policy. Guilford, New York, pp 34–60Google Scholar
  20. Chandra PS, Bhargavaraman RP, Raghunandan VNGP, Shaligram D (2006) Delusions related to infant and their association with mother–infant interactions in postpartum psychotic disorders. Arch Womens Ment Health 9:285–288PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  21. Cicchetti D, Toth SL, Rogosch FA (1999) The efficacy of toddler–parent psychotherapy to increase attachment security in off-spring of depressed mothers. Attach Hum Dev 1:34–66PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  22. Cornish AM, McMahon CA, Ungerer JA, Barnett B, Kowalenko N, Tennant C (2006) Maternal depression and the experience of parenting in the second postnatal year. J Reprod Infant Psyc 24:121–132CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  23. Coyl DD, Roggman LA, Newland LA (2002) Stress, maternal depression, and negative mother–infant interactions in relation to infant attachment. Infant Ment Health J 23:145–163CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  24. D’Angelo EJ (1986) Security of attachment in infants with schizophrenic, depressed, and unaffected mothers. J Genet Psychol 147:421–422PubMedGoogle Scholar
  25. DeMulder EK, Radke-Yarrow M (1991) Attachment with affectively ill and well mothers: concurrent behavioural correlates. Dev Psychopathol 3:237–242CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  26. DeWolff MS, van Ijzendoorn MH (1997) Sensitivity and attachment: a meta-analysis on parental antecedents of infant attachment. Child Dev 68:571–591CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  27. Fearon RMP, Van IJzendoorn MH, Fonagy P, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Schuengel C, Bokhorst CL (2006) In search of shared and nonshared environmental factors in security of attachment: a behavior–genetic study of the association between sensitivity and attachment security. Dev Psychol 42:1026–1040PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  28. Fonagy P, Target M (2005) Bridging the transmission gap: an end to an important mystery of attachment research? Attach Hum Dev 7:333–343PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  29. Forbes LM, Evans EM, Moran G, Pederson DR (2007) Change in atypical maternal behavior predicts change in attachment disorganization from 12 to 24 months in a high-risk sample. Child Dev 78:955–571PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  30. Gervai J, Novak A, Lakatos K, Coth I, Danis I, Ronai Z, Nemoda Z et al (2007) Infant genotype may moderate sensitivity to maternal affective communications: attachment disorganization, quality of care, and the DRD4 polymorphism. Soc Neurosci 2:307–319PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  31. Goldberg S, Benoit D, Blokland K, Madigan S (2003) Atypical maternal behavior, maternal representations, and infant disorganized attachment. Dev Psychopathol 15:239–57PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. Goodman SH (1987) Emory University project on children of disturbed parents. Schizophr Bull 3:411–423Google Scholar
  33. Goodman SH, Brumley HE (1990) Schizophrenic and depressed mothers: relational deficits in parenting. Dev Psychol 26:31–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  34. Goodman SH, Gotlib IH (1999) Risk for psychopathology in the children of depressed mothers: a developmental model for understanding mechanisms of transmission. Psychol Rev 106:458–490PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  35. Graham CA, Easterbrooks MA (2000) School-aged children’s vulnerability to depressive symptomatology: the role of attachment security, maternal depressive symptomatology, and economic risk. Dev Psychopathol 12:201–213PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  36. Green JM, Wan MW, DeKlyen M (2008) Attachment insecurity and attachment disorder. In: Tyrer P, Silk K (eds) Cambridge handbook of effective treatments in psychiatry. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 748–754Google Scholar
  37. Greig A, Howe D (2001) Social understanding, attachment security of preschool children and maternal mental health. Br J Dev Psychol 19:381–393CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  38. Hans SL, Auerbach JG, Auerbach AG, Marcus J (2005) Development from birth to adolescence of children at-risk for schizophrenia. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 15:384–394PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  39. Hipwell AE, Goossens FA, Melhuish EC, Kumar R (2000) Severe maternal psychopathology and infant–mother attachment. Dev Psychopathol 12:157–175PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  40. Hughes P, Turton P, Hopper E, McGauley GA, Fonagy P (2001) Disorganised attachment behaviour among infants born subsequent to stillbirth. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 42:791–801PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  41. Hughes P, Turton P, McGauley GA, Fonagy P (2006) Factors that predict infant disorganization in mothers classed as U in pregnancy. Attach Hum Dev 8:113–122PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  42. Jacobsen T, Miller LJ (1999) Attachment quality in young children of mentally ill mothers. In: Solomon J, George C (eds) Attachment disorganization. Guilford, New York, pp 347–378Google Scholar
  43. Janssen I, Krabbendam L, Hanssen M, Bak M, Vollebergh W, de Graff R, Van Os J (2005) Are apparent associations between parental representations and psychosis risk mediated by early trauma? Acta Psychiatr Scand 112:372–375PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  44. Joyce PR, Rogers GR, Miller AL, Mulder R, Luty SE, Kennedy MA (2003) Polymorphisms of DRD4 and risk of avoidant and obsessive personality traits and disorders. Psychiatr Res 119:1–10CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  45. Juffer F, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, van IJzendoorn MH (2008) Promoting positive parenting: an attachment-based intervention. Lawrence Erlbaum, LondonGoogle Scholar
  46. Kessler RC, Zhao S, Blazer DC, Swartz M (1997) Prevalence, correlates, and course of minor depression and major depression in the national comorbidity survey. J Affect Dis 45:19–30PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  47. Kim-Cohen J, Moffitt TE, Taylor A, Pawlby SJ, Caspi A (2005) Maternal depression and children’s antisocial behavior. Nature and nurture effects. Arch Gen Psychiatr 62:173–181PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  48. Lovejoy MC, Graczyk PA, O’Hare E, Neuman G (2000) Maternal depression and parenting behaviour: a meta-analytic review. Clin Psychol Rev 20:561–592PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  49. Lucas-Thompson R, Clarke-Stewart A (2007) Forecasting friendship: how marital quality, maternal mood, and attachment security are linked to children’s peer relationships. J Appl Dev Psychol 28:499–514CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  50. Lyons-Ruth K, Jacobvitz D (1999) Attachment disorganization: unresolved loss, relational violence, and lapses in behavioral and attentional strategies. In: Cassidy J, Shaver PR (eds) Handbook of attachment: theory, research, and clinical applications. Guilford, New York, pp 520–554Google Scholar
  51. Lyons-Ruth K, Easterbrooks MA, Davidson Cibelli C (1997) Infant attachment strategies, infant mental lag, and maternal depressive symptoms: predictors of internalising and externalising problems at age 7. Dev Psychol 33:681–692PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  52. Lyons-Ruth K, Yellin C, Melnick S, Atwood G (2003) Childhood experiences of trauma and loss have different relations to maternal unresolved and hostile–helpless states of mind on the AAI. Attach Hum Dev 5:330–352PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  53. Madigan S, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Van Ijzendoorn MH, Moran G, Pederson DR, Benoit D (2006a) Unresolved states of mind, anomalous parental behaviour, and disorganized attachment: a review and meta-analysis of a transmission gap. Attach Hum Dev 8:89–111PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  54. Madigan S, Moran G, Pederson DR (2006b) Unresolved states of mind, disorganized attachment relationships, and disrupted interactions of adolescent mothers and their infants. Dev Psychol 42:293–304PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  55. Main M, Hesse E (1990) Parent’s unresolved traumatic experiences are related to infant disorganized/disoriented attachment status: is frightened and/or frightening parental behavior the linking mechanism? In: Greenberg M, Cicchetti D, Cummings EM (eds) Attachment in the preschool years: theory, research, and intervention. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp 161–182Google Scholar
  56. Main M, Kaplan N, Cassidy J (1985) Security in infancy, childhood and adulthood: a move to the level of representation. In: Bretherton I, Waters E (eds) Growing points of attachment theory and research. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev 50(209):66–104Google Scholar
  57. Martins C, Gaffan E (2000) Effects of early maternal depression on patterns of infant–mother attachment: a meta-analytic investigation. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 41:737–746PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  58. McMahon CA, Barnett B, Kowalenko NM, Tennant C (2006) Maternal attachment state of mind moderates the impact of postnatal depression on infant attachment. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 47:660–669PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  59. McMahon CA, Trapolini T, Barnett B (2008) Maternal state of mind regarding attachment predicts persistence of postnatal depression in the preschool years. J Affect Dis 107:199–203PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  60. McNeil T, Persson-Blennow I, Binett B, Harty B, Karyd U-B (1988) A prospective study of postpartum psychoses in a high risk group: V11. Relationship to later offspring characteristics. Acta Psychiatr Scand 78:613–617PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  61. Mills-Koonce WR, Gariepy J-L, Sutton K, Cox MJ (2008) Changes in maternal sensitivity across the first three years: are mothers from different attachment dyads differentially influenced by depressive symptomatology? Attach Hum Dev 10:299–317PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  62. Moran G, Pederson DR, Krupka A (2005) Maternal unresolved attachment status impedes the effectiveness of interventions with adolescent mothers. Infant Ment Health J 26:231–249CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  63. Moran G, Forbes L, Evans E, Tarabulsy GM, Madigan S (2008) Both maternal sensitivity and atypical maternal behavior independently predict attachment security and disorganization in adolescent mother–infant relationships. Infant Behav Dev 31:321–325PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  64. Munson JA, McMahon RJ, Spieker SJ (2001) Structure and variability in the developmental trajectory of children’s externalising problems: Impact of infant attachment, maternal depressive symptomatology, and child sex. Dev Psychopathol 13:277–296PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  65. Murray L, Halligan SL, Adams G, Patterson P, Goodyer IM (2006) Socioemotional development in adolescents at risk for depression: the role of maternal depression and attachment style. Dev Psychopathol 18:489–516PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  66. Murray L, Woolgar M, Briers S, Hipwell A (1999a) Children’s social representations in dolls house play and theory of mind tasks and their relation to family adversity and child disturbance. Soc Dev 8:179–200CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  67. Murray L, Sinclair D, Cooper P, Ducournau P, Turner P (1999b) The socioemotional development of 5-year-old children of postnatally depressed mothers. J Child Psychol Psychiatr 40:1259–1271CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  68. Nagata M, Nagai Y, Sobajima H, Ando T, Honjo S (2003) Depression in the mother and maternal attachment: results from a follow-up study at 1 year postpartum. Psychopathol 36:142–151CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  69. Näslund B, Persson-Blennow I, McNeil T, Kaij L, Malmquist-Larsson A (1984) Offspring of women with nonorganic psychosis: infant attachment to the mother at one year. Acta Psychiatr Scand 69:231–241PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  70. Näslund B, Persson-Blennow I, McNeil T, Kaij L (1985) Offspring of women with nonorganic psychosis: mother–infant interaction at three and six weeks of age. Acta Psychiatr Scand 71:441–450PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  71. National Institute of Child Health & Human Development (NICHD) Early Child Care Research Network (1997) The effects of infant child care on infant–mother attachment security: results of the NICHD study of early child care. Child Dev 68:860–879CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  72. NICHD Early Child Care Research Network (2006) Infant–mother attachment classification: risk and protection in relation to changing maternal caregiving quality. Dev Psychol 42:38–58CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  73. O’Connor TG, Croft CM (2001) A twin Study of attachment in preschool children. Child Dev 72:1501–1511PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  74. Persson-Blennow I, Näslund B, McNeil TF, Kaij L (1986) Offspring of women with nonorganic psychosis: mother–infant interaction at one year of age. Acta Psychiatr Scand 73:207–213PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  75. Raikes HA, Thompson RA (2006) Family emotional climate, attachment security and young children’s emotion knowledge in a high risk sample. Br J Dev Psychol 24:89–104CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  76. Riggs SA, Paulson A, Tunnell E, Sahl G, Atkison H, Ross CA (2007) Attachment, personality, and psychopathology among adult inpatients: Self-reported romantic attachment style\versus Adult Attachment Interview states of mind. Dev Psychopathol 19:263–291PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  77. Robbins Broth M, Goodman SH, Hall C, Raynor LC (2004) Depressed and well mothers’ emotion interpretation accuracy and the quality of mother–infant interaction. Infancy 6:37–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  78. Rogosch FA, Cicchetti D, Toth SL (2004) Expressed emotion in multiple subsystems of the families of toddlers with depressed mothers. Dev Psychopathol 16:689–709PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  79. Sands R (1995) The Parenting experience of low-income single women with serious mental disorders. Fam Soc 76:86–89Google Scholar
  80. Schiffman J, LaBrie J, Carter J, Cannon T, Schulsinger F, Parnas J, Mednick S (2002) Perception of parent–child relationships in high-risk families, and adult schizophrenia outcome in offspring. J Psychiatr Res 36:41–47PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  81. Schneider BH, Atkinson LL, Tardif C (2000) Child–parent attachment and children’s peer relations: a quantitative review. Dev Psychol 37:86–100CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  82. Smeekens S, Riksen-Walraven JM, van Bakel HJA (2007) Multiple determinants of externalizing behavior in 5-year-olds: a longitudinal model. J Abnorm Child Psychol 35:347–361PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  83. Snellen M, Mack K, Trauer T (1999) Schizophrenia, mental state, and mother–infant interaction: examining the relationship. Aust NZ J Psychiat 33:902–911CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  84. Sroufe LA, Carlson EA, Levy AK, Egeland B (1999) Implications of attachment theory for developmental psychopathology. Dev Psychopathol 11:1–13PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  85. Tochigi M, Hibino H, Otowa T, Kato C, Marui T, Ohtani T, Umekage T et al (2006) Association between dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) exon III polymorphism and neuroticism in the Japanese population. Neurosci Lett 398:333–336PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  86. Tomlinson M, Cooper P, Murray L (2005) The mother–infant relationship and infant attachment in a South African peri-urban settlement. Child Dev 76:1044–1054PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  87. Toth SL, Rogosch FA, Manly JT, Cicchetti D (2006) The efficacy of toddler–parent psychotherapy to reorganize attachment in the young offspring of mothers with major depressive disorder: a randomized preventive trial. J Consult Clin Psychol 74:1006–1016PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  88. Trapolini T, Ungerer JA, McMahon CA (2007) Maternal depression and children’s attachment representations during the preschool years. Br J Dev Psychol 25:247–261CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  89. Van Ijzendoorn M (1995) Adult attachment representations, parental responsiveness, and infant attachment: a meta-analysis on the predictive validity of the Adult Attachment Interview. Psychol Bull 117:387–403PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  90. Van Ijzendoorn MH, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ (2006) DRD4 7-repeat polymorphism moderates the association between maternal unresolved loss or trauma and infant disorganization. Attach Hum Dev 8:291–307PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  91. Van Ijzendoorn MH, Schuengel C, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ (1999) Disorganized attachment in early childhood: meta-analysis of precursors, concomitants, and sequelae. Dev Psychopathol 11:225–249PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  92. Wahlberg K-E, Wynne LC, Hakko H, Läksy K, Moring J, Miettunen J, Tienari P (2004) Interaction of genetic risk and adoptive parent communication deviance: longitudinal prediction of adoptee psychiatric disorders. Psychol Med 34:1531–1541PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  93. Wan MW, Abel KM, Green J (2008a) The transmission of risk to children from mothers with schizophrenia: a developmental psychopathology model. Clin Psychol Rev 28:613–637PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  94. Wan MW, Penketh V, Salmon M, Abel K (2008b) The content and style of speech from mothers with schizophrenia towards their infants. Psychiat Res 159:109–114CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  95. Wan MW, Moulton S, Abel KM (2008c) A review of mother-child relational interventions and their usefulness for mothers with schizophrenia. Arch Womens Ment Health 11:171–179CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  96. Wan MW, Salmon MP, Riordan DM, Appleby L, Webb R, Abel KM (2007a) What predicts poor mother–infant interaction in schizophrenia? Psychol Med 37:537–546PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  97. Wan MW, Warburton AL, Appleby L, Abel KM (2007b) Mother and Baby Unit admissions: a feasibility study examining child outcomes 4–6 years on. Aust NZ J Psychiat 41:150–156CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  98. Wan MW, Green J (2009) Negative and atypical story content themes in a clinical sample: Relationship with child behaviour disorder and maternal depressed mood. J Child Psychol Psychiat (under review)Google Scholar
  99. Ward MJ, Lee SS, Poan HJ (2006) Attachment and psychopathology in a community sample. Attach Hum Dev 8:327–340PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  100. Zalsman G, Frisch A, Lewis R, Michaelovsky E, Hermesh H, Sher L et al (2004) DRD4 receptor gene exon III polymorphism in inpatient suicidal adolescents. J Neural Transm 111:1593–1603PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer Verlag 2009

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 1.Centre for Women’s Mental Health, Division of PsychiatryUniversity of ManchesterManchesterUK
  2. 2.Psychiatry Research GroupUniversity of ManchesterManchesterUK

Personalised recommendations