European Spine Journal

, Volume 17, Supplement 1, pp 101–122 | Cite as

Assessment of Neck Pain and Its Associated Disorders

Results of the Bone and Joint Decade 2000-2010 Task Force on Neck Pain and Its Associated Disorders
  • Margareta Nordin
  • Eugene J. Carragee
  • Sheilah Hogg-Johnson
  • Shira Schecter Weiner
  • Eric L. Hurwitz
  • Paul M. Peloso
  • Jaime Guzman
  • Gabrielle van der Velde
  • Linda J. Carroll
  • Lena W. Holm
  • Pierre Côté
  • J. David Cassidy
  • Scott Haldeman
Best Evidence

Abstract

Study Design

Best evidence synthesis.

Objective

To critically appraise and synthesize the literature on assessment of neck pain.

Summary of Background Data

The published literature on assessment of neck pain is large and of variable quality. There have been no prior systematic reviews of this literature.

Methods

The Bone and Joint Decade 2000–2010 Task Force on Neck Pain and Its Associated Disorders conducted a critical review of the literature (published 1980– 2006) on assessment tools and screening protocols for traumatic and nontraumatic neck pain.

Results

We found 359 articles on assessment of neck pain. After critical review, 95 (35%) were judged scientifically admissible. Screening protocols have high predictive values to detect cervical spine fracture in alert, low-risk patients seeking emergency care after blunt neck trauma. Computerized tomography (CT) scans had better validity (in adults and elderly) than radiographs in assessing high-risk and/or multi-injured blunt trauma neck patients. In the absence of serious pathology, clinical physical examinations are more predictive at excluding than confirming structural lesions causing neurologic compression. One exception is the manual provocation test for cervical radiculopathy, which has high positive predictive value. There was no evidence that specific MRI findings are associated with neck pain, cervicogenic headache, or whiplash exposure. No evidence supports using cervical provocative discography, anesthetic facet, or medial branch blocks in evaluating neck pain. Reliable and valid self-report questionnaires are useful in assessing pain, function, disability, and psychosocial status in individuals with neck pain.

Conclusion

The scientific evidence supports screening protocols in emergency care for low-risk patients; and CT-scans for high-risk patients with blunt trauma to the neck. In nonemergency neck pain without radiculopathy, the validity of most commonly used objective tests is lacking. There is support for subjective self-report assessment in monitoring patients’ course, response to treatment, and in clinical research.

Keywords

best evidence synthesis cervical spine neck pain whiplash-associated disorder assessment diagnosis 

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. 1.
    Guzman J, Hurwitz EL, Carroll LJ, et al. A conceptual model for the course and care of neck pain. Results of the bone and joint decade 2000–2010 task force on neck pain and its associated disorders. Spine 2008;33(suppl):S14–S23.Google Scholar
  2. 2.
    Carroll LJ, Cassidy JD, Peloso PM, et al. Methods for the best evidence synthesis on neck pain and its associated disorders. The bone and joint decade 2000–2010 task force on neck pain and its associated disorders. Spine 2008;33(suppl):S33–S38.Google Scholar
  3. 3.
    Altman DG, Bland JM. (1994) Diagnostic tests. I. Sensitivity and specificity. BMJ 308:1552PubMedGoogle Scholar
  4. 4.
    Jaeschke R, Guyatt G, Sackett DL. (1994) Users’ guides to the medical literature. III. How to use an article about a diagnostic test, part A: are the results of the study valid? Evidence-Based Medicine Working Group. JAMA 271:389–91PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  5. 5.
    Sackett DL, Haynes RB. (2002) The architecture of diagnostic research. BMJ 324:539–41PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. 6.
    Haas M, Groupp E, Panzer D, et al. (2003) Efficacy of cervical endplay assessment as an indicator for spinal manipulation. Spine 28:1091–6PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  7. 7.
    Spitzer WO, Skovron ML, Salmi LR, et al. Scientific monograph of the Quebec Task Force on Whiplash-Associated Disorders: redefining “whiplash” and its management. Spine 1995;20:1S–73S.Google Scholar
  8. 8.
    Rubinstein S, Pool JJ, van Tulder M, et al. (2007) A systematic review of the diagnostic accuracy of provocative tests of the neck for diagnosing cervical radiculopathy. Eur Spine J 16:307–19PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  9. 9.
    van Trijffel E, Anderegg Q, Bossuyt PM, et al. (2005) Inter-examiner reliability of passive assessment of intervertebral motion in the cervical and lumbar spine: a systematic review. Manual Therapy 10:256–69PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  10. 10.
    Holmes JF, Akkinepalli R. (2005) Computed tomography versus plain radiography to screen for cervical spine injury: a meta-analysis. J Trauma Injury Infect Crit Care 58:902–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  11. 11.
    Moskovich R, Petrizzo A. Evaluation of the neck. In: Nordin M, Andersson GBJ, Pope M, eds. Musculoskeletal Disorders in the Workplace. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Mosby Elsevier; 1997;55–72.Google Scholar
  12. 12.
    Guzman J, Haldeman S, Carroll LJ, et al. Practice implications of the results of the bone and joint decade 2000–2010 task force on neck pain and its associated disorders: from concepts and findings to recommendations. Spine 2008;33(suppl):S198–S211.Google Scholar
  13. 13.
    Kerr D, Bradshaw L, Kelly AM. (2005) Implementation of the Canadian C-spine rule reduces cervical spine x-ray rate for alert patients with potential neck injury. J Emerg Med 28:127–31PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  14. 14.
    Stiell I, McKnight R, Schull M, et al. (2003) The Canadian C-spine rules versus the NEXUS low-risk criteria in patients with trauma. N Engl J Med 349:2510–8PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  15. 15.
    Steill I, Wells GA, Vandemheen K. (2001) The Canadian C-spine rule for radiography in alert and stable trauma patients. JAMA 286:1841–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. 16.
    Dearden C, Hughes D. (2005) Does the national emergency x-ray utilization study make a difference?. Eur J Emerg Med 12:278–81PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  17. 17.
    Dickinson G, Stiell IG, Schull M, et al. (2004) Retrospective application of the NEXUS low-risk criteria for cervical spine radiography in Canadian emergency departments. Ann Emerg Med 43:507–14PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  18. 18.
    Heffernan DS, Schermer CR, Lu SW. (2005) What defines a distracting injury in cervical spine assessment?. J Trauma Injury Infect Crit Care 59: 1396–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  19. 19.
    Hoffman JR, Schriger DL, Mower W, et al. (1992) Low-risk criteria for cervicalspine radiography in blunt trauma: a prospective study. Ann Emerg Med 21:1454–60PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  20. 20.
    Hoffman JR, Mower WR, Wolfson AB, et al. (2000) Validity of a set of clinical criteria to rule out injury to the cervical spine in patients with blunt trauma. National Emergency X-Radiography Utilization Study Group. N Engl J Med 343:94–9Google Scholar
  21. 21.
    Panacek EA, Mower WR, Holmes JF, et al. (2001) Test performance of the individual NEXUS low-risk clinical screening criteria for cervical spine injury. Ann Emerg Med 38:22–5PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  22. 22.
    Pollack CV Jr, Hendey GW, Martin DR, et al. (2001) Use of flexion-extension radiographs of the cervical spine in blunt trauma. Ann Emerg Med 38:8–11PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  23. 23.
    Touger M, Gennis P, Nathanson N, et al. (2002) Validity of a decision rule to reduce cervical spine radiography in elderly patients with blunt trauma. Ann Emerg Med 40:287–93PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  24. 24.
    Blackmore CC, Ramsey SD, Mann FA, et al. (1999) Cervical spine screening with CT in trauma patients: a cost-effectiveness analysis. Radiology 212:117–25PubMedGoogle Scholar
  25. 25.
    Diaz JJ Jr, Gillman C, Morris JA Jr, et al. (2003) Are five-view plain films of the cervical spine unreliable? A prospective evaluation in blunt trauma patients with altered mental status. J Trauma Injury Infect Crit Care 55:658–63CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  26. 26.
    Gale SC, Gracias VH, Reilly PM, et al. (2005) The inefficiency of plain radiography to evaluate the cervical spine after blunt trauma. J Trauma Injury Infect Crit Care 59:1121–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  27. 27.
    Griffen MM, Frykberg ER, Kerwin AJ, et al. (2003) Radiographic clearance of blunt cervical spine injury: plain radiograph or computed tomography scan? J Trauma Injury Infect Crit Care 55:222–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  28. 28.
    McCulloch PT, France J, Jones DL, et al. (2005) Helical computed tomography alone compared with plain radiographs with adjunct computed tomography to evaluate the cervical spine after high-energy trauma. J Bone Joint Surg Am Vol 87:2388–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  29. 29.
    Streitwieser DR, Knopp R, Wales LR, et al. (1983) Accuracy of standard radiographic views in detecting cervical spine fractures. Ann Emerg Med 12:538–42PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  30. 30.
    Suzuki T, Morimura N, Sugiyama M, et al. (2004) How often should computed tomographic scans following cross-table lateral cervical films be performed?. J Orthopaedic Surg 12:40–4Google Scholar
  31. 31.
    Neifeld GL, Keene JG, Hevesy G, et al. (1988) Cervical injury in head trauma. J Emerg Med 6:203–7PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. 32.
    Zabel DD, Tinkoff G, Wittenborn W, et al. (1997) Adequacy and efficacy of lateral cervical spine radiography in alert, high-risk blunt trauma patient. J Trauma Injury Infect Crit Care 43:952–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  33. 33.
    Browne GJ, Lam LT, Barker RA. (2003) The usefulness of a modified adult protocol for the clearance of paediatric cervical spine injury in the emergency department. Emerg Med 15:133–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  34. 34.
    Jaffe DM, Binns H, Radkowski MA, et al. (1987) Developing a clinical algorithm for early management of cervical spine injury in child trauma victims. Ann Emerg Med 16:270–6PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  35. 35.
    Dwek JR, Chung CB. (2000) Radiography of cervical spine injury in children: are flexion-extension radiographs useful for acute trauma?. AJR 174: 1617–9PubMedGoogle Scholar
  36. 36.
    Annis JA, Finlay DB, Allen MJ, et al. (1987) A review of cervical-spine radiographs in casualty patients. Br J Radiol 60:1059–61.Google Scholar
  37. 37.
    Domeier RM, Frederiksen SM, Welch K. Prospective performance assessment of an out-of-hospital protocol for selective spine immobilization using clinical spine clearance criteria. Ann Emerg Med 2005;46:123–31.Google Scholar
  38. 38.
    Bigos S, Bowyer O, et al. Acute low back pain in adults. Clinical Practice Guidelines no. 14 AHCPR. 95–0642. 1–12-1194. Rockville MD, Agency for Healthcare Policy and Research, Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health and Human Sevices.Google Scholar
  39. 39.
    Deyo RA, Rainville J, Kent DL. What can the history and physical examination tell us about low back pain? JAMA 1992;268:760–5.Google Scholar
  40. 40.
    European Guidelines for Low Back Pain. 2004. http://www.backpaineurope.org/web/files/WG1_Guidelines.pdf.
  41. 41.
    Binder AI. (2007) Cervical spondylosis and neck pain. BMJ 334:527–31PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  42. 42.
    Strender LE, Lundin M, Nell K. (1997) Interexaminer reliability in physical examination of the neck. J Manipulative Physiol Ther 20:516–20PubMedGoogle Scholar
  43. 43.
    Salerno DF, Franzblau A, Werner RA, et al. (2000) Reliability of physical examination of the upper extremity among keyboard operators. Am J Ind Med 37:423–30PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  44. 44.
    Viikari-Juntura E. (1987) Interexaminer reliability of observations in physical examinations of the neck. Phys Ther 67:1526–32PubMedGoogle Scholar
  45. 45.
    Pool JJ, Hoving JL, de Vet HC, et al. (2004) The interexaminer reproducibility of physical examination of the cervical spine. J Manipulative Physiol Ther 27:84–90PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  46. 46.
    Smedmark V, Wallin M, Arvidsson I. Inter-examiner reliability in assessing passive intervertebral motion of the cervical spine. Manual Therapy 2000; 5:97–101.Google Scholar
  47. 47.
    Ylinen J, Takala EP, Kautiainen H, et al. Association of neck pain, disability and neck pain during maximal effort with neck muscle strength and range of movement in women with chronic non-specific neck pain. Eur J Pain 2004; 8:473–8.Google Scholar
  48. 48.
    Hanten WP, Olson SL, Russell JL, et al. Total head excursion and resting head posture: normal and patient comparisons. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2000;81:62–6.Google Scholar
  49. 49.
    Hoving JL, Pool JJ, van MH, et al. Reproducibility of cervical range of motion in patients with neck pain. BMC 2005;6:59.Google Scholar
  50. 50.
    Jordan A, Mehlsen J, Ostergaard K. A comparison of physical characteristics between patients seeking treatment for neck pain and age-matched healthy people. J Manipulative Physiol Ther 1997;20:468–75.Google Scholar
  51. 51.
    Olson SL, O’Connor DP, Birmingham G, et al. Tender point sensitivity, range of motion, and perceived disability in subjects with neck pain. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 2000;30:13–20.Google Scholar
  52. 52.
    Osterbauer PJ, Long K, Ribaudo TA, et al. Three-dimensional head kinematics and cervical range of motion in the diagnosis of patients with neck trauma. J Manipulative Physiol Ther 1996;19:231–7.Google Scholar
  53. 53.
    Petersen CM, Johnson RD, Schuit D. Reliability of cervical range of motion using the OSI CA 6000 spine motion analyser on asymptomatic and symptomatic subjects. Manual Therapy 2000;5:82–8.Google Scholar
  54. 54.
    Puglisi F, Ridi R, Cecchi F, et al. Segmental vertebral motion in the assessment of neck range of motion in whiplash patients. Int J Legal Med 2004; 118:235–9.Google Scholar
  55. 55.
    Wainner RS, Fritz JM, Irrgang JJ, et al. Reliability and diagnostic accuracy of the clinical examination and patient self-report measures for cervical radiculopathy. Spine 2003;28:52–62.Google Scholar
  56. 56.
    Hartling L, Brison RJ, Ardern C, et al. (2001) Prognostic value of the Quebec Classification of Whiplash-Associated Disorders. Spine 26:36–41PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  57. 57.
    Hagen KB, Harms-Ringdahl K, Enger NO, et al. (1997) Relationship between subjective neck disorders and cervical spine mobility and motion-related pain in male machine operators. Spine 22:1501–7PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  58. 58.
    Toomingas A, Nemeth G, Alfredsson L. (1995) Self-administered examination versus conventional medical examination of the musculoskeletal system in the neck, shoulders, and upper limbs. J Clin Epidemiol 48:1473–83PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  59. 59.
    Kristjansson E, Hardardottir L, Asmundardottir M, et al. A new clinical test for cervicocephalic kinesthetic sensibility: “the fly.” Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2004;85:490–5.Google Scholar
  60. 60.
    Larsson B, Bjork J, Elert J, et al. (2000) Mechanical performance and electromyography during repeated maximal isokinetic shoulder forward flexions in female cleaners with and without myalgia of the trapezius muscle and in healthy controls. Eur J Appl Physiol 83:257–67PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  61. 61.
    Kumbhare DA, Balsor B, Parkinson WL, et al. (2005) Measurement of cervical flexor endurance following whiplash. Disabil Rehabil 27:801–7PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  62. 62.
    Hains F, Waalen J, Mior S. (1998) Psychometric properties of the neck disability index. J Manipulative Physiol Ther 21:75–80PubMedGoogle Scholar
  63. 63.
    Andersen JH, Gaardboe O. (1993) Musculoskeletal disorders of the neck and upper limb among sewing machine operators: a clinical investigation. Am J Ind Med 24:689–700PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  64. 64.
    Sandmark H, Nisell R. (1995) Validity of five common manual neck pain provoking tests. Scand J Rehabil Med 27:131–6PubMedGoogle Scholar
  65. 65.
    Hsueh TC, Yu S, Kuan TS, et al. (1998) Association of active myofascial trigger points and cervical disc lesions. J Formos Med Assoc 97:174–80PubMedGoogle Scholar
  66. 66.
    Viikari-Juntura E, Porras M, Laasonen EM. (1989) Validity of clinical tests in the diagnosis of root compression in cervical disc disease. Spine 14: 253–7PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  67. 67.
    Ljungquist T, Jensen IB, Nygren A, et al. (2003) Physical performance tests for people with long-term spinal pain: aspects of construct validity. J Rehabil Med 35:69–75PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  68. 68.
    Sobel JB, Sollenberger P, Robinson R, et al. (2000) Cervical nonorganic signs: a new clinical tool to assess abnormal illness behavior in neck pain patients: a pilot study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 81:170–5PubMedGoogle Scholar
  69. 69.
    Kivioja J, Rinaldi L, Ozenci V, et al. (2001) Chemokines and their receptors in whiplash injury: elevated RANTES and CCR-5. J Clin Immunol 21: 272–7PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  70. 70.
    Shy ME, Frohman EM, So YT, et al. (2003) Quantitative sensory testing: report of the therapeutics and technology assessment subcommittee of the American Academy Of Neurology. Neurology 60:898–904PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  71. 71.
    Westgaard RH, Vasseljen O, Holte KA. Trapezius muscle activity as a risk indicator for shoulder and neck pain in female service workers with low biomechanical exposure. Ergonomics 2001;44:339–53.Google Scholar
  72. 72.
    Carlson CR, Wynn KT, Edwards J, et al. Ambulatory electromyogram activity in the upper trapezius region: patients with muscle pain vs. painfree control subjects. Spine 1996;21:595–9.Google Scholar
  73. 73.
    Keidel M, Rieschke P, Stude P, et al. Antinociceptive reflex alteration in acute posttraumatic headache following whiplash injury. Pain 2001;92: 319–26.Google Scholar
  74. 74.
    Pullman SL, Goodin DS, Marquinez AI, et al. Clinical utility of surface EMG: report of the therapeutics and technology assessment subcommittee of the American Academy Of Neurology. Neurology 2000;55:171–7.Google Scholar
  75. 75.
    Matsumoto M, Fujimura Y, Suzuki N, et al. Cervical curvature in acute whiplash injuries: prospective comparative study with asymptomatic subjects. Injury 1998;29:775–8.Google Scholar
  76. 76.
    Shaw DD, Bach-Gansmo T, Dahlstrom K. Iohexol: summary of North American and European clinical trials in adult lumbar, thoracic, and cervical myelography with a new nonionic contrast medium. Invest Radiol 1985;20:S44–50.Google Scholar
  77. 77.
    Stafira JS, Sonnad JR, Yuh WT, et al. Qualitative assessment of cervical spinal stenosis: observer variability on CT and MR images. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2003;24:766–9.Google Scholar
  78. 78.
    Schellhas KP, Smith MD, Gundry CR, et al. Cervical discogenic pain. Prospective correlation of magnetic resonance imaging and discography in asymptomatic subjects and pain sufferers. Spine 1996;21:311–2.Google Scholar
  79. 79.
    Slipman CW, Plastaras C, Patel R, et al. Provocative cervical discography symptom mapping. Spine 2005;5:381–8.Google Scholar
  80. 80.
    Carragee EJ, Tanner CM, Khurana S, et al. The rates of false-positive lumbar discography in select patients without low back symptoms. Spine 2000;25:1373–80.Google Scholar
  81. 81.
    Walsh TR, Weinstein JN, Spratt KF, et al. Lumbar discography in normal subjects. A controlled, prospective study. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1990;72:1081–8.Google Scholar
  82. 82.
    Matsumoto M, Fujimura Y, Suzuki N, et al. (1998) MRI of cervical intervertebral discs in asymptomatic subjects. J Bone Joint Surg Br Vol 80:19–24CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  83. 83.
    Cooley JR, Danielson CD, Schultz GD, et al. (2001) Posterior disk displacement: morphologic assessment and measurement reliability– cervical spine. J Manipulative Physiol Ther 24:560–8PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  84. 84.
    Krakenes J, Kaale BR, Moen G, et al. (2002) MRI assessment of the alar ligaments in the late stage of whiplash injury—a study of structural abnormalities and observer agreement. Neuroradiology 44:617–24PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  85. 85.
    Krakenes J, Kaale BR, Moen G, et al. (2003) MRI of the tectorial and posterior atlanto-occipital membranes in the late stage of whiplash injury. Neuroradiology 45:585–91PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  86. 86.
    Krakenes J, Kaale BR, Nordli H, et al. (2003) MR analysis of the transverse ligament in the late stage of whiplash injury. Acta Radiol 44:637–44PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  87. 87.
    Ross JS, Ruggieri PM, Tkach JA, et al. Gd-DTPA-enhanced 3D MR imaging of cervical degenerative disk disease: initial experience. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 13:127–36Google Scholar
  88. 88.
    Humphreys SC, Hodges SD, Fisher DL, et al. Reliability of magnetic resonance imaging in predicting disc material posterior to the posterior longitudinal ligament in the cervical spine. A prospective study. Spine 1998;23:2468–71.Google Scholar
  89. 89.
    Sengupta DK, Kirollos R, Findlay GF, et al. The value of MR imaging in differentiating between hard and soft cervical disc disease: a comparison with intraoperative findings. Eur Spine J 1999;8:199–204.Google Scholar
  90. 90.
    Boden SD, McCowin PR, Davis DO, et al. Abnormal magnetic-resonance scans of the cervical spine in asymptomatic subjects. A prospective investigation. J Bone Joint Surg Am Vol 1990;72:1178–84.Google Scholar
  91. 91.
    Lehto IJ, Tertti MO, Komu ME, et al. Age-related MRI changes at 0.1 T in cervical discs in asymptomatic subjects. Neuroradiology 1994;36:49–53.Google Scholar
  92. 92.
    Siivola SM, Levoska S, Tervonen O, et al. MRI changes of cervical spine in asymptomatic and symptomatic young adults. Eur Spine J 2002;11:358–63.Google Scholar
  93. 93.
    Hamalainen O, Vanharanta H, Kuusela T. Degeneration of cervical intervertebral disks in fighter pilots frequently exposed to high? Gz forces. Aviat Space Environ Med 1993;64:692–6.Google Scholar
  94. 94.
    Borchgrevink G, Smevik O, Haave I, et al. MRI of cerebrum and cervical columna within two days after whiplash neck sprain injury. Injury 1997;28:331–5.Google Scholar
  95. 95.
    Coskun O, Ucler S, Karakurum B, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of patients with cervicogenic headache. Cephalalgia 2003;23:842–5.Google Scholar
  96. 96.
    Barnsley L, Lord S, Wallis B, et al. False-positive rates of cervical zygapophysial joint blocks. Clin J Pain 1993;9:124–30.Google Scholar
  97. 97.
    Barnsley L, Lord SM, Wallis BJ, et al. The prevalence of chronic cervical zygapophysial joint pain after whiplash. Spine1995;20:20–5.Google Scholar
  98. 98.
    Bogduk N, Marsland A. The cervical zygapophysial joints as a source of neck pain. Spine 1988;13:610–7.Google Scholar
  99. 99.
    Lord SM, Barnsley L, Bogduk N. The utility of comparative local anesthetic blocks versus placebo-controlled blocks for the diagnosis of cervical zygapophysial joint pain. Clin J Pain 1995;11:208–13.Google Scholar
  100. 100.
    Barnsley L, Lord S, Bogduk N. Comparative local anaesthetic blocks in the diagnosis of cervical zygapophysial joint pain. Pain1993;55:99–106.Google Scholar
  101. 101.
    Williams NH, Wilkinson C, Russell IT. Extending the Aberdeen back pain scale to include the whole spine: a set of outcome measures for the neck, upper and lower back. Pain 2001;94:261–74.Google Scholar
  102. 102.
    Hurst H, Bolton J. Assessing the clinical significance of change scores recorded on subjective outcome measures. J Manipulative Physiol Ther 2004; 27:26–35.Google Scholar
  103. 103.
    Bendebba M, Heller J, Ducker TB, et al. (2002) Cervical spine outcomes questionnaire: its development and psychometric properties. Spine 27:2116–23PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  104. 104.
    Chiu TT, Lam TH, Hedley AJ. Psychometric properties of a generic health measure in patients with neck pain. Clin Rehabil 2003:505–13Google Scholar
  105. 105.
    Hoving JL, O’Leary EF, Niere KR, et al. (2003) Validity of the neck disability index, Northwick Park neck pain questionnaire, and problem elicitation technique for measuring disability associated with whiplash-associated disorders. Pain 102:273–81PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  106. 106.
    Kaale BR, Krakenes J, Albrektsen G, et al. (2005) Head position and impact direction in whiplash injuries: associations with MRI-verified lesions of ligaments and membranes in the upper cervical spine. J Neurotrauma 22:1294–302PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  107. 107.
    Riddle DL, Stratford PW. (1998) Use of generic versus region-specific functional status measures on patients with cervical spine disorders. Phys Ther 78:951–63PubMedGoogle Scholar
  108. 108.
    Wlodyka-Demaille S, Poiraudeau S, Catanzariti JF, et al. (2004) The ability to change of three questionnaires for neck pain. Spine 71:317–26Google Scholar
  109. 109.
    Bicer A, Yazici A, Camdeviren H, et al. (2004) Assessment of pain and disability in patients with chronic neck pain: reliability and construct validity of the Turkish version of the neck pain and disability scale. Disabil Rehabil 26:959–62PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  110. 110.
    Gonzalez T, Balsa A, Sainz dM, et al. (2001) Spanish version of the Northwick Park Neck Pain Questionnaire: reliability and validity. Clin Exp Rheumatol 19:41–6PubMedGoogle Scholar
  111. 111.
    Pinfold M, Niere KR, O’Leary EF, et al. (2004) Validity and internal consistency of a whiplash-specific disability measure. Spine 29:263–8PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  112. 112.
    Bijur PE, Silver W, Gallagher EJ. (2001) Reliability of the visual analog scale for measurement of acute pain. Acad Emerg Med 8:1153–7PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  113. 113.
    Price DD, McGrath PA, Rafii A, et al. (1983) The validation of visual analogue scales as ratio scale measures for chronic and experimental pain. Pain 17:45–56PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  114. 114.
    Fejer R, Jordan A, Hartvigsen J. (2005) Categorising the severity of neck pain: establishment of cut-points for use in clinical and epidemiological research. Pain 119:176–82PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  115. 115.
    Jordan A, Manniche C, Mosdal C, et al. (1998) The Copenhagen neck functional disability scale: a study of reliability and validity. J Manipulative Physiol Ther 21:520–7PubMedGoogle Scholar
  116. 116.
    Chiu TT, Lam TH, Hedley AJ. (2001) Subjective health measure used on Chinese patients with neck pain in Hong Kong. Spine 26:1884–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  117. 117.
    Carragee EJ. Validity of self reported history on patients with back and neck pain after motor-vehicle accidents (MVA). Spine J 2007;May 22[Epub ahead of print].Google Scholar
  118. 118.
    Carroll LJ, Hogg-Johnson S, van der Velde G, et al. Course and prognostic factors for neck pain in the general population. Results of the bone and joint decade 2000–2010 task force on neck pain and its associated disorders. Spine 2008;33(suppl):S74 –S81.Google Scholar
  119. 119.
    Carroll LJ, Holm LW, Hogg-Johnson S, et al. Course and prognostic factors for neck pain in whiplash-associated disorders (WAD). Results of the bone and joint decade 2000–2010 task force on neck pain and its associated disorders. Spine 2008;33(suppl):S82–S91.Google Scholar
  120. 120.
    Carroll LJ, Hogg-Johnson S, Côté P, et al. Course and prognostic factors for neck pain in workers. Results of the bone and joint decade 2000–2010 task force on neck pain and its associated disorders. Spine 2008;33(suppl):S92–S99.Google Scholar
  121. 121.
    Bossuyt PM, Reitsma JB, Bruns DE, et al. Towards complete and accurate reporting of studies of diagnostic accuracy: the STARD initiative. BMJ 2003;326:41–4.Google Scholar
  122. 122.
    Greenhalgh T. (1997) Education and debate: papers that report diagnostic or screening tests. BMJ 315:1–12Google Scholar
  123. 123.
    Reid MC, Lachs MS, Feinstein AR. (1995) Use of methodological standards in diagnostic test research. Getting better but still not good. JAMA 274: 645–51PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  124. 124.
    Lee CI, Haims AH, Manico EP, et al. (2004) Diagnostic CT scans: assessment of patient, physician, and radiologist awareness of radiation dose and possible risks. Radiology 231:393–8PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  125. 125.
    Wood B. Lack of Awareness of CT scan Radiation Dose. 2004:65–66.Google Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer-Verlag 2008

Authors and Affiliations

  • Margareta Nordin
    • 1
    • 4
    • 22
  • Eugene J. Carragee
    • 5
    • 6
  • Sheilah Hogg-Johnson
    • 7
    • 8
  • Shira Schecter Weiner
    • 2
    • 3
  • Eric L. Hurwitz
    • 9
  • Paul M. Peloso
    • 10
  • Jaime Guzman
    • 11
    • 12
  • Gabrielle van der Velde
    • 17
    • 18
    • 19
    • 14
  • Linda J. Carroll
    • 15
  • Lena W. Holm
    • 16
  • Pierre Côté
    • 13
    • 14
    • 17
    • 19
  • J. David Cassidy
    • 13
    • 14
    • 19
  • Scott Haldeman
    • 20
    • 21
  1. 1.Departments of Orthopaedics and Environmental Medicine and Program of Ergonomics and Biomechanics, School of Medicine and Graduate School of Arts and ScienceNew York UniversityNew YorkUSA
  2. 2.Occupational and Industrial Orthopaedic Center (OIOC), New York University-Hospital for Joint DiseasesNew York University Medical CenterNew YorkUSA
  3. 3.Program of Ergonomics and Biomechanics. Graduate School of Arts and Science and School of MedicineNew York UniversityNew YorkUSA
  4. 4.Occupational and Industrial Orthopaedic Center (OIOC)New York University Medical CenterNew YorkUSA
  5. 5.Department of Orthopaedic SurgeryStanford University School of MedicineStanfordUSA
  6. 6.Orthopaedic Spine Center and Spinal Surgery ServiceStanford University Hospital and ClinicsStanfordUSA
  7. 7.Institute for Work and HealthTorontoCanada
  8. 8.Department of Public Health SciencesUniversity of TorontoTorontoCanada
  9. 9.Department of Public Health Sciences, John A. Burns School of MedicineUniversity of Hawaii at MânoaHonoluluUSA
  10. 10.Endocrinology, Analgesia and InflammationMerck & Co.RahwayUSA
  11. 11.Department of MedicineUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouverCanada
  12. 12.Occupational Health and Safety Agency for Healthcare in BCVancouverCanada
  13. 13.Departments of Public Health Sciences and Health Policy, Management and EvaluationUniversity of TorontoTorontoCanada
  14. 14.Division of Health Care and Outcomes ResearchToronto Western Research InstituteTorontoCanada
  15. 15.Department of Public Health Sciences, and the Alberta Centre for Injury Control and Research, School of Public HealthUniversity of AlbertaEdmontonCanada
  16. 16.Institute of Environmental MedicineKarolinska InstitutetStockholmSweden
  17. 17.Institute for Work & HealthTorontoCanada
  18. 18.Department of Health Policy, Management and EvaluationUniversity of TorontoTorontoCanada
  19. 19.Centre of Research Expertise in Improved Disability Outcomes (CREIDO)University Health Network Rehabilitation SolutionsTorontoCanada
  20. 20.Department of NeurologyUniversity of CaliforniaIrvineUSA
  21. 21.Department of Epidemiology, School of Public HealthUniversity of CaliforniaLos AngelesUSA
  22. 22.OIOC-NYU HJDNew YorkUSA

Personalised recommendations