Advertisement

Climate Dynamics

, Volume 39, Issue 3–4, pp 729–754 | Cite as

The role of the intra-daily SST variability in the Indian monsoon variability and monsoon-ENSO–IOD relationships in a global coupled model

  • Pascal Terray
  • Kakitha Kamala
  • Sébastien Masson
  • Gurvan Madec
  • A. K. Sahai
  • Jing-Jia Luo
  • Toshio Yamagata
Article
First Online:
Received:
Accepted:

Abstract

The impact of diurnal SST coupling and vertical oceanic resolution on the simulation of the Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM) and its relationships with El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) events are studied through the analysis of four integrations of a high resolution Coupled General Circulation Model (CGCM), but with different configurations. The only differences between the four integrations are the frequency of coupling between the ocean and atmosphere for the Sea Surface Temperature (SST) parameter (2 vs. 24 h coupling) and/or the vertical oceanic resolution (31 vs. 301 levels) in the CGCM. Although the summer mean tropical climate is reasonably well captured with all the configurations of the CGCM and is not significantly modified by changing the frequency of SST coupling from once to twelve per day, the ISM–ENSO teleconnections are rather poorly simulated in the two simulations in which SST is exchanged only once per day, independently of the vertical oceanic resolution used in the CGCM. Surprisingly, when 2 h SST coupling is implemented in the CGCM, the ISM–ENSO teleconnection is better simulated, particularly, the complex lead-lag relationships between the two phenomena, in which a weak ISM occurs during the developing phase of an El Niño event in the Pacific, are closely resembling the observed ones. Evidence is presented to show that these improvements are related to changes in the characteristics of the model’s El Niño which has a more realistic evolution in its developing and decaying phases, a stronger amplitude and a shift to lower frequencies when a 2-hourly SST coupling strategy is implemented without any significant changes in the basic state of the CGCM. As a consequence of these improvements in ENSO variability, the lead relationships between Indo-Pacific SSTs and ISM rainfall resemble the observed patterns more closely, the ISM–ENSO teleconnection is strengthened during boreal summer and ISM rainfall power spectrum is in better agreement with observations. On the other hand, the ISM–IOD teleconnection is sensitive to both SST coupling frequency and the vertical oceanic resolution, but increasing the vertical oceanic resolution is degrading the ISM–IOD teleconnection in the CGCM. These results highlight the need of a proper assessment of both temporal scale interactions and coupling strategies in order to improve current CGCMs. These results, which must be confirmed with other CGCMs, have also important implications for dynamical seasonal prediction systems or climate change projections of the monsoon.

Keywords

Indian summer monsoon El Niño-Southern Oscillation Intra-daily SST variability Ocean–atmosphere interactions Coupled climate model 
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

Notes

Acknowledgments

Financial support from the Indo-French CEFIPRA project (No. 3907/1) and the European Community project ENSEMBLES (Project no. GOCE-CT-2003-505539) is acknowledged. All the SINTEX-F2 experiments were carried out on the Earth Simulator (JAMSTEC) in the frame of the France-Japan collaboration. Our sensibility experiments with 301 levels in the ocean have to be double thanks to the outstanding computational performances offered by this unique supercomputer. S. Masson and G. Madec were supported by ANR (INLOES project). Many thanks to R. Benshila, C. Talandier, A. Caubel, E. Maisonnave, M.A. Foujols, C. Levy, Y.Meursedoif, F. Pinsard, C. Deltel, S. Denvil and P. Brochard who have come to the ESC to implement, optimize and run the simulations. Their visit at the ESC was greatly facilitated by the kind help of K. Takahashi, A. Kurita, R. Itakura, A. Toya and M.-E. Demory. The NCEP–NCAR reanalysis, CMAP and HadISST1.1 data were provided by the NOAA–CIRES Climate Diagnostics Center from the Web site (http://www.cdc.noaa.gov). Finally, we acknowledge the outstanding work undertaken by the many international modeling groups who provided their numerous model experiments for the Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison (PCMDI). For more details on model data or documentation, readers are referred to the PCMDI Web site (http://www-pcmdi.llnl.gov).

References

  1. Abram NJ, Gagan MK, Cole JE, Hantoro WS, Mudelsee M (2008) Recent intensification of tropical climate variability in the Indian Ocean. Nat Geosci 1:849–853CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  2. AchutaRao K, Sperber KR (2002) Simulation of the El Niño Southern Oscillation: results from the coupled model intercomparison project. Clim Dyn 19:191–209CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  3. AchutaRao KM, Sperber KR (2006) ENSO simulation in coupled ocean-atmosphere models: are the current models better? Clim Dyn 27:1–15CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  4. Alexander MA, Bladé I, Newman M, Lanzante JR, Lau N-C, Scott JD (2002) The atmospheric bridge: the influence of ENSO teleconnections on air–sea interaction over the global oceans. J Clim 15:2205–2231CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  5. Alexander MA, Vimont DJ, Chang P, Scott JD (2010) The impact of extratropical atmospheric variability on ENSO: testing the seasonal footprinting mechanism using coupled model experiments. J Clim 23:2885–2901CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. Annamalai H, Liu P (2005) Response of the Asian summer monsoon to changes in El Niño properties. Q J R Meteorol Soc 131:805–831CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  7. Annamalai H, Sperber KR (2005) Regional heat sources and the active and break phases of boreal summer intraseasonal (30–50 day) variability. J Atmos Sci 62:2726–2748CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  8. Annamalai H, Hamilton K, Sperber KR (2007) The South Asian summer monsoon and its relationship with ENSO in the IPCC AR4 simulations. J Clim 20:1071–1092CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  9. Ashok K, Guan Z, Yamagata T (2001) Influence of the Indian Ocean Dipole on the relationship between the Indian monsoon rainfall and ENSO. Geophys Res Lett 28:4499–4502CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  10. Ashok K, Guan Z, Saji NH, Yamagata T (2004) Individual and combined influences of ENSO and the Indian Ocean dipole on the Indian summer monsoon. J Clim 17:3141–3154CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  11. Behera SK, Luo JJ, Masson S, Rao SA, Sakuma H (2006) A CGCM study on the interaction between IOD and ENSO. J Clim 19:1688–1705CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  12. Bernie DJ, Guilyardi E, Madec G, Slingo JM, Woolnough SJ (2007) Impact of resolving the diurnal cycle in an ocean-atmosphere GCM. Part 1: a diurnally forced OGCM. Clim Dyn 29:575–590CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  13. Bernie DJ, Guilyardi E, Madec G, Slingo JM, Woolnough SJ, Cole J (2008) Impact of resolving the diurnal cycle in an ocean–atmosphere GCM. Part 2: a diurnally coupled CGCM. Clim Dyn 31:909–925CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  14. Bhalme HN, Jadhav SK (1984) The southern oscillation and its relation to the monsoon rainfall. Int J Climatol 4:509–520. doi: 10.1002/joc.3370040506 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  15. Boschat G, Terray P, Masson S (2011a) Interannual relationships between Indian Summer Monsoon and Indo-Pacific coupled modes of variability during recent decades. Clim Dyn 37:1019–1043. doi: 10.1007/s00382-010-0887-y CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. Boschat G, Terray P, Masson S (2011b) Robustness of SST teleconnections and precursory patterns associated with the Indian summer monsoon. Clim Dyn (online) doi: 10.1007/s00382-011-1100-7
  17. Bracco A, Kucharski F, Molteni F, Hazeleger W, Severijns C (2007) A recipe for simulating the interannual variability of the Asian summer monsoon and its relation with ENSO. Clim Dyn. doi: 10.1007/s000382-006-0190-0 Google Scholar
  18. Cai W, Sullivan A, Cowan T (2009) Rainfall teleconnections with Indo-Pacific variability in the WCRP CMIP3 models. J Clim 22:5046–5071CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  19. Carton JA, Giese BS, Grodsky SA (2005) Sea level rise and the warming of the oceans in the SODA ocean reanalysis. J Geophys Res 110:C09006. doi: 10.1029/2004JC002817 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  20. Chang C-P et al (2006) Climate fluctuations of tropical coupled systems—the role of ocean dynamics. J Clim 19:5122–5174CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  21. Cherchi A, Gualdi S, Behera S, Luo JJ, Masson S, Yamagata T, Navarra A (2007) The influence of tropical Indian Ocean SST on the Indian summer monsoon. J Clim 20:3083–3105CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  22. Danabasoglu G, Large WG, Tribbia JJ, Gent PR, Briegleb BP, McWilliams JC (2006) Diurnal coupling in the tropical oceans of CCSM3. J Clim 19:2347–2365CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  23. Diggle PJ (1990) Time series: a biostatistical introduction, Chapter 4. Clarendon Press, OxfordGoogle Scholar
  24. Ebisuzaki W (1997) A method to estimate the statistical significance of a correlation when the data are serially correlated. J Clim 10:2147–2153CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  25. Fischer AS, Terray P, Delecluse P, Gualdi S, Guilyardi E (2005) Two independent triggers for the Indian Ocean dipole/zonal mode in a coupled GCM. J Clim 18:3428–3449CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  26. Gadgil S, Rajeevan M, Nanjundiah R (2005) Monsoon prediction—why yet another failure? Curr Sci 84:1713–1719Google Scholar
  27. Gershunov A, Schneider N, Barnett T (2001) Low-frequency modulation of the ENSO-Indian monsoon rainfall relationship: signal or noise? J Clim 14:2486–2492CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  28. Goswami BN, Wu G, Yasunari T (2006) Annual cycle, intraseasonal oscillations and roadblock to seasonal predictability of the Asian summer monsoon. J Clim 19:5078–5099CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  29. Gualdi S, Guilyardi E, Navarra A, Masina S, Delecluse P (2003) The interannual variability in the tropical Indian Ocean as simulated by a CGCM. Clim Dyn 20:567–582Google Scholar
  30. Guilyardi E (2006) El Niño-mean state–seasonal cycle interactions in a multi-model ensemble. Clim Dyn 26:329–348CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  31. Guilyardi E, Delecluse P, Gualdi S, Navarra A (2003) Mechanisms for ENSO phase change in a coupled GCM. J Clim 16:1141–1158CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. Ham YG, Kug JS, Kang IS, Jin FF, Timmermann A (2010) Impact of diurnal atmosphere–ocean coupling on tropical climate simulations using a coupled GCM. Clim Dyn 34:905–917CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  33. Izumo T, de Boyer Montégut C, Luo J–J, Behera SK, Masson S, Yamagata T (2008) The role of the western Arabian Sea upwelling in Indian monsoon rainfall variability. J Clim 21:5603–5623CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  34. Joseph R, Nigam S (2006) ENSO evolution and teleconnection in IPCC’s twentieth-century climate simulations: realistic representation? J Clim 19:4360–4377CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  35. Ju J, Slingo JM (1995) The Asian summer monsoon and ENSO. Q J R Meteorol Soc 121:1133–1168CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  36. Kalnay E, Kanamitsu M, Kistler R, Collins W, Deaven D, Gandin L, Iredell M, Saha S, White G, Woollen J, Zhu Y, Chelliah M, Ebisuzaki W, Higgins W, Janowiak J, Mo KC, Ropelewski C, Wang J, Leetmaa A, Reynolds R, Jenne R, Joseph D (1996) The NCEP/NCAR 40-year reanalysis project. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 77:437–471CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  37. Kawai Y, Wada A (2007) Diurnal sea surface temperature variation and its impact on the atmosphere and ocean: a review. J Oceanogr 63:721–744CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  38. Kinter JL, Miyakoda K, Yang S (2002) Recent change in the connection from the Asian Monsoon to ENSO. J Clim 15:1203–1215CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  39. Krishna Kumar K, Rajagopalan B, Cane M (1999) On the weakening relationship between the Indian monsoon and ENSO. Science 284:2156–2159CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  40. Krishna Kumar K, Hoerling M, Rajagopalan B (2005) Advancing dynamical prediction of Indian monsoon rainfall. Geophys Res Lett 32:1–4CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  41. Krishna Kumar K et al (2006) Unravelling the mystery of Indian monsoon failure during El Niño. Science 314:115. doi: 10.1126/science.1131152 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  42. Krishnan R, Swapna P (2009) Significance influence of the boreal summer monsoon flow on the Indian Ocean response during dipole events. J Clim 22:5611–5634CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  43. Krishnan R, Sundaram S, Swapna P, Kumar V, Ayantika DC, Mujumdar M (2010) The crucial role of ocean-atmosphere coupling on the Indian monsoon anomalous response during dipole events. Clim Dyn. doi: 10.1007/s00382-010-0830-2 Google Scholar
  44. Kucharski F, Bracco A, Yoo JH, Molteni F (2007) Low-frequency variability of the Indian Monsoon-ENSO relation and the tropical Atlantic; the ‘weakening’ of the 1980 s and 1990 s. J Clim 20:4255–4266CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  45. Kucharski F, Bracco A, Yoo JH, Molteni F (2008) Atlantic forced component of the Indian monsoon interannual variability. Geophys Res Lett 35:L04706. doi: 10.1029/2007GL033037 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  46. Kug JS, Kang I-S (2006) Interactive feedback between ENSO and the Indian Ocean. J Clim 19:1784–1801CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  47. Lau NC, Nath MJ (2004) Coupled GCM Simulation of atmosphere–ocean variability associated with zonally asymmetric SST changes in the tropical Indian Ocean. J Clim 17:245–265CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  48. Li T, Wang B, Chang CP, Zhang YS (2003) A theory for the Indian Ocean dipole-zonal mode. J Atmos Sci 60:2119–2135CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  49. Li T, Liu P, Fu X, Wang B, Meehl GA (2006) Spatial-temporal structure of tropical biennial oscillation. J Clim 19:3070–3087CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  50. Loschnigg J, Meehl GA, Arblaster JM, Compo GP, Webster PJ (2003) The Asian monsoon, the tropospheric biennial oscillation, and the Indian Ocean dipole in the NCAR CSM. J Clim 16:1617–1642CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  51. Luo JJ, Masson S, Behera S, Delecluse P, Gualdi S, Navarra A, Yamagata T (2003) South Pacific origin of the decadal ENSO-like variation as simulated by a coupled GCM. Geophys Res Lett 30:2250–2254CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  52. Luo JJ, Masson S, Roeckner E, Madec G, Yamagata T (2005) Reducing climatology bias in an ocean–atmosphere CGCM with improved coupling physics. J Clim 18:2344–2360CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  53. Madec G (2008) “NEMO ocean engine”. Note du Pole de modélisation, Institut Pierre-Simon Laplace (IPSL), France, No. 27. ISSN No 1288-1619Google Scholar
  54. Madec G, Delecluse P, Imbard M, Lévy C (1998) OPA 8.1 Ocean General Circulation Model reference manual. Note du Pole de modélisation, Institut Pierre-Simon Laplace (IPSL), France, No. 11, 91 ppGoogle Scholar
  55. Manganello JV, Huang B (2009) The influence of systematic errors in the Southeast Pacific on ENSO variability and prediction in a coupled GCM. Clim Dyn 32:1015–1034. doi: 10.1007/s00382-008-0407-5 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  56. Masson S, Terray P, Madec G, Luo JJ, Yamagata T, Takahashi K (2011) Impact of intra-daily SST variability on ENSO characteristics in a coupled model. Clim Dyn (submitted)Google Scholar
  57. Meehl GA, Arblaster J (2002) The tropospheric biennial oscillation and the Asian–Australian monsoon rainfall. J Clim 15:722–744CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  58. Meehl GA, Lukas R, Kiladis GN, Wheeler M, Matthews A, Weickmann KM (2001) A conceptual framework for time and space scale interactions in the climate system. Clim Dyn 17:753–775CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  59. Meehl GA, Arblaster JM, Loschnigg J (2003) Coupled ocean–atmosphere dynamical processes in the tropical Indian and Pacific Oceans and the TBO. J Clim 16:2138–2158CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  60. Meehl GA et al (2007) The WCRP CMIP3 multi-model dataset: a new era in climate change research. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 88:1383–1394CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  61. Molines JM, Barnier B, Penduff T, Brodeau L, Treguier AM, Theetten S, Madec G (2006) Definition of the global 1/2° experiment with CORE interannual forcing, ORCA05-G50. LEGI report, November 2006. LEGI-DRA-1-11-2006, http://www.ifremer.fr/lpo/drakkar/drakkar/configs/ORCA05/orca05_G50.pdf
  62. Nordeng TE (1994) Extended versions of the convective parameterization scheme at ECMWF and their impact on the mean and transient activity of the model in the tropics, Tech. Memo. 206, Eur. Cent. for medium-range weather forecasts, ReadingGoogle Scholar
  63. Palmer TN et al (2004) Development of an European multi-model ensemble system for seasonal to interannual prediction (DEMETER). Bull Am Meteorol Soc 85:853–872CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  64. Parthasarathy B, Munot AA, Kothawale DR (1994) All-India monthly and seasonal rainfall series: 1871–1993. Theor Appl Climatol 49:217–224CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  65. Rayner NA, DE Parker, Horton EB, Folland CK, Alexander LV, Rowell DP, Kent EC, Kaplan A (2003) Global analyses of sea surface temperature, sea ice, and night marine air temperature since the late nineteenth century. J Geophys Res 108(D14):4407. doi: 10.1029/2002JD002670 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  66. Reichler T, Kim J (2008) How well do coupled models simulate today’s climate? Bull Am Meteorol Soc 89:303–311CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  67. Roeckner E, Alfred S, Amala Y (1996) The atmospheric general circulation model ECHAM-4: model description and simulation of present-day climate. Max-Planck-Institut für Meteorologie, report no. 218, 94 ppGoogle Scholar
  68. Roeckner E, Bäuml G, Bonaventura L, Brokopf R, Esch M, Giorgetta M, Hagemann S, Kirchner I, Kornblueh L, Manzini E, Rhodin A, Schlese U, Schulzweida U, Tompkins A (2003) The atmospheric general circulation model ECHAM 5. PART I: model description. MPI-Report 349Google Scholar
  69. Roeckner E, Brokopf R, Esch M, Giorgetta M, Hagemann S, Kornblueh L, Manzini E, Schlese U, Schulzweida U (2004) The atmospheric general circulation model ECHAM5 Part II: sensitivity of simulated climate to horizontal and vertical resolution. Max-Planck-Institute for Meteorology, MPI-Report 354Google Scholar
  70. Saji NH, Goswami BN, Vinayachandran PN, Yamagata TA (1999) Dipole mode in the tropical Indian Ocean. Nature 401:360–363Google Scholar
  71. Saji NH, Xie S-P, Yamagata T (2006) Tropical Indian Ocean variability in the IPCC twentieth-century climate simulations. J Clim 19:4397–4417. doi: 10.1175/JCLI3847.1 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  72. Slingo J, Inness P, Neale R, Woolnough S, Yang G (2003) Scale interactions on diurnal to seasonal timescales and their relevance to model systematic errors. Ann Geophys 46:139–155Google Scholar
  73. Spencer H, Sutton RT, Slingo JM, Roberts M, Black E (2005) Indian Ocean climate and dipole variability in Hadley centre coupled GCMs. J Clim 18:2286–2307CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  74. Spencer H, Sutton RT, Slingo JM (2007) El Niño in a coupled climate model: sensitivity to changes in mean state induced by heat flux and wind stress corrections. J Clim 20:2273–2298CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  75. Terray P (2006) Assessment of the representation of monsoon and its teleconnection with the ocean variability from IPCC scenarios with the European models. European ENSEMBLES project (Project no. GOCE-CT-2003-505539). Deliverable D.5.17, 20 ppGoogle Scholar
  76. Terray P (2011) Southern Hemisphere extra-tropical forcing: a new paradigm for El Niño-Southern Oscillation. Clim Dyn 36:2171–2199. doi: 10.1007/s00382-010-0825-z CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  77. Terray P, Dominiak S (2005) Indian Ocean sea surface temperature and El Niño-southern oscillation: a new perspective. J Clim 18:1351–1368CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  78. Terray P, Delecluse P, Labattu S, Terray L (2003) Sea surface temperature associations with the late Indian summer monsoon. Clim Dyn 21:593–618CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  79. Terray P, Dominiak S, Delecluse P (2005a) Role of the southern Indian Ocean in the transitions of the monsoon-ENSO system during recent decades. Clim Dyn 24:169–195. doi: 10.1007/s00382-004-0480-3 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  80. Terray P, Guilyardi E, Fischer AS, Delecluse P (2005b) Dynamics of the Indian monsoon and ENSO relationships in the SINTEX global coupled model. Clim Dyn 24:145–168CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  81. Terray P, Chauvin F, Douville H (2007) Impact of southeast Indian Ocean sea surface temperature anomalies on monsoon-ENSO-dipole variability in a coupled ocean-atmosphere model. Clim Dyn 28:553–580. doi: 10.1007/s00382-006-0192-y CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  82. Tiedtke M (1989) A comprehensive mass flux scheme for cumulus parameterization in large-scale models. Mon Weather Rev 117:1779–1800CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  83. Timmermann R, Goosse H, Madec G, Fichefet T, Ethe C, Duliere C (2005) On the representation of high latitude processes in the ORCA-LIM global coupled sea-ice–ocean model. Ocean Model 8:175–201CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  84. Trenberth KE, Stepaniak DP (2001) Indices of El Niño evolution. J Clim 14:1697–1701CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  85. Turner AG, Inness PM, Slingo JM (2005) The role of the basic state in the ENSO-monsoon relationship and implications for predictability. Q J R Meteorol Soc 131:781–804CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  86. Valcke S (2006) OASIS3 user guide (prism_2-5). PRISM Support Initiative Report No 3, 64 ppGoogle Scholar
  87. Vimont DJ, Wallace JM, Battisti DS (2003) The seasonal footprinting mechanism in the Pacific: implications for ENSO. J Clim 16:2668–2675CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  88. Vimont DJ, Alexander M, Fontaine A (2009) Midlatitude excitation of tropical variability in the Pacific: the role of thermodynamic coupling and seasonality. J Clim 22:518–534CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  89. Wang B (1995) Interdecadal changes in El Niño onset in the last four decades. J Clim 8:267–285CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  90. Wang B (2006) The Asian monsoon. Springer/Praxis Publishing, New York, 787 ppGoogle Scholar
  91. Wang B, Wu R, Lau K-M (2001) Interannual variability of the Asian summer monsoon: contrasts between the Indian and the Western North Pacific–East Asian Monsoons. J Clim 14:4073–4090CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  92. Wang B, Ding Q, Fu X, Kang I-S, Jin K, Shukla J, Doblas-Reyes F (2005) Fundamental challenges in simulation and prediction of summer monsoon rainfall. Geophys Res Lett 32:L15711. doi: 10.1029/2005GL02273412 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  93. Webster PJ, Yang S (1992) Monsoon and ENSO: selectively interactive systems. Q J R Meteorol Soc 118:877–926CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  94. Webster PJ, Magana VO, Palmer TN, Shukla J, Tomas RA, Yanai M, Yasunari T (1998) Monsoons: Processes, predictability and the prospects for prediction. J Geophys Res 103(C7):14451–14510CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  95. Welch PD (1967) The use of Fast Fourier Transform for the estimation of power spectra: a method based on time averaging over short, modified periodograms. IEEE Trans Audio Electroacoust 15:70–73CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  96. Wu R, Kirtman BP (2003) On the impacts of Indian summer monsoon on ENSO in a coupled GCM. Q J R Meteorol Soc 129:3439–3468CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  97. Wu R, Kirtman BP (2005) Role of Indian and Pacific Ocean air-sea coupling in tropical atmospheric variability. Clim Dyn 25:155–179CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  98. Wu R, Kirtman BP (2007a) Role of Indian Ocean in the biennial transition of the Indian summer monsoon. J Clim 20:2147–2164CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  99. Wu R, Kirtman BP (2007b) Regimes of local air–sea interactions and implications for performance of forced simulations. Clim Dyn 29:393–410CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  100. Wu R, Kirtman BP, Pegion K (2006) Local air–sea relationship in observations and model simulations. J Clim 19:4914–4932CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  101. Xavier PK, Marzin C, Goswami BN (2007) An objective definition of the Indian summer monsoon season and a new perspective on the ENSO-monsoon relationship. Q J R Meteorol Soc 133:749–764CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  102. Xie P, Arkin PA (1997) Global precipitation: a 17-year monthly analysis based on gauge observations, satellite estimates and numerical model outputs. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 78:2539–2558CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  103. Yasunari T (1990) Impact of Indian monsoon on the coupled atmosphere/ocean system in the tropical Pacific. Meteorol Atmos Phys 44:29–41CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  104. Yoo SH, Fasullo J, Yang S, Ho CH (2010) On the relationship between Indian Ocean sea surface temperature and the transition from El Niño to La Niña. J Geophys Res 115:D15114. doi: 10.1029/2009JD012978 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  105. Yu L, Jin X, Weller RA (2008) Multidecade global flux datasets from the objectively analyzed air-sea fluxes (OAFlux) project: latent and sensible heat fluxes, ocean evaporation, and related surface meteorological variables. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, OAFlux Project Technical Report. OA-2008-01, 64 pp. Woods HoleGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer-Verlag 2011

Authors and Affiliations

  • Pascal Terray
    • 1
  • Kakitha Kamala
    • 1
  • Sébastien Masson
    • 1
  • Gurvan Madec
    • 1
  • A. K. Sahai
    • 2
  • Jing-Jia Luo
    • 3
  • Toshio Yamagata
    • 3
  1. 1.LOCEAN/IPSL, CNRS/IRD/UPMC/MNHNUniversité Pierre et Marie CurieParis Cedex 05France
  2. 2.Indian Institute of Tropical MeteorologyPuneIndia
  3. 3.RIGCYokohamaJapan

Personalised recommendations