Environmental Management

, 48:808 | Cite as

Urban Domestic Gardens: The Effects of Human Interventions on Garden Composition

  • Alison Loram
  • Philip Warren
  • Ken Thompson
  • Kevin Gaston
Article
First Online:
Received:
Accepted:

Abstract

Private domestic gardens contribute substantially to the biodiversity of urban areas and benefit human health and well-being. We previously reported a study of 267 gardens across five cities in the United Kingdom in which variation in geographical and climatic factors had little bearing on the richness, diversity and composition of plant species. We therefore hypothesise that garden management is an important factor in determining garden characteristics. Here, from the same sample of gardens, we investigate potential associations between the uses to which people put their gardens, the types of management activities they undertake, and the characteristics of those gardens. Householders (n = 265) completed a questionnaire detailing various aspects of garden use and management activities. The majority of respondents used their gardens chiefly for relaxation, recreation, and eating. Fewer than one fifth included “gardening” amongst their garden uses even though all performed some garden management, suggesting that not all management activity resulted from an interest in gardening. Garden-watering and lawn-mowing were the most prevalent activities and were predictors of other types of management including weeding, vegetation-cutting, leaf-collection, and dead-heading flowers. A number of these activities were associated with one another, the richness and composition of plant species, and the number of land uses in gardens. However, relationships between management activities and the amount of tall vegetation were less consistent, and garden management appeared to be independent of garden area. More species of amphibians, birds, and mammals were observed in gardens with ponds and in which efforts were made to attract wildlife, particularly by providing drinking water. This study supports the hypothesis that garden use and management is associated with garden characteristics.

Keywords

Gardens Housing Management Recreation Vegetation Wildlife gardening 
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

Notes

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by funding from the Countryside Council for Wales, the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, Natural England, the Environment and Heritage Service, and the Scottish and Northern Ireland Forum for Environmental Research. Data were kindly supplied by Ordnance Survey. We are grateful to P. Cush, N. Dempsey, R. Hughes, C. Peacock, C. Powell, A. Renshaw, A. Smith, S. Steel, and A. Woolley for assistance in contacting garden owners. We thank three anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on a previous draft of the manuscript.

References

  1. Akinnifesi FK, Sileshi G, Ajayi OC, Akinnifesi AI, de Moura EG, Linhares JFP et al (2009) Biodiversity of the urban home-gardens of São Luís city, Northern Brazil. Urban Ecosystems 13:29–146Google Scholar
  2. Akinnifesi FK, Sileshi G, da Costa J, de Moura EG, da Silva RF, Ajayi OC et al (2010) Floristic composition and canopy structure of home-gardens in São Luís city, Maranhão State, Brazil. Journal of Horticulture and Forestry 2:72–86Google Scholar
  3. Albuquerque UP, Andrade LHC, Caballero J (2005) Structure and floristics of home gardens in Northeastern Brazil. Journal of the Arid Environment 62:491–506CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  4. Baker PJ, Ansell RJ, Dodds PAA, Webber CE, Harris S (2003) Factors affecting the distribution of small mammals in an urban area. Mammal Review 33:95–100CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  5. Balmford A, Clegg L, Coulson T, Taylor J (2002) Why conservationists should heed Pokémon. Science 295:2367CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. Bernholt H, Kehlenbeck K, Gebauer J, Buerkert B (2009) Plant species richness and diversity in urban and peri-urban gardens of Niamey, Niger. Agroforestry Systems 77:59–179CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  7. Bhatti M, Church A (2001) Cultivating natures: homes and gardens in late modernity. Sociology 35:365–383Google Scholar
  8. Bhatti M, Church A (2004) Home, the culture of nature and meanings of gardens in late modernity. Housing Studies 19:37–51CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  9. Bird W (2004) Can green space and biodiversity increase levels of physical activity? Report generated by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds endorsed by the Faculty of Public Health of the Royal Colleges of Physicians of the United Kingdom. Available at: http://www.rspb.org.uk/policy/health. Accessed 4 Aug 2011
  10. Cannon AR, Chamberlain DE, Toms MP, Hatchwell BJ, Gaston KJ (2005) Trends in the use of private gardens by wild birds in Great Britain. Journal of Applied Ecology 42:659–671CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  11. Cardiff Biodiversity Partnership (2008) Cardiff local biodiversity action plan 2008. Cardiff City Council. Available at http://www.cardiff.gov.uk. Accessed 4 Aug 2011
  12. Carrie J-A, Beebee TJC (2003) Recent, substantial, and unexplained declines of the common toad Bufo bufo in lowland England. Biological Conservation 111:395–399CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  13. Central Office of Information (2009) Wildlife management and invasive non-native species report of research findings among the general public. Anglers and the Horticultural Retail Trade, Volume 1, Central Office of Information, LondonGoogle Scholar
  14. Chamberlain DE, Cannon AR, Toms MP (2004) Associations of garden birds with gradients in garden habitat and local habitat. Ecography 27:589–600CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  15. Clayton S (2007) Domesticated nature: motivations for gardening and perceptions of environmental impact. Journal of Environmental Psychology 27:215–224CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. Colding J, Lundberg J, Folke C (2006) Incorporating green-area user groups in urban ecosystem management. Ambio 35:237–244CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  17. Comstock N, Dickinson LM, Marshall JA, Soobader M-J, Turbin MS, Buchena M et al (2010) Neighborhood attachment and its correlates: Exploring neighbourhood conditions, collective efficacy, and gardening. Journal of Environmental Psychology 27:435–442CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  18. Countryside Council for Wales (2004) Plant for wildlife––Wildlife on your doorstep–– Follow the simple guide to wildlife gardening. Available at: http://www.ccw.gov.UK/. Accessed 4 Aug 2011
  19. Daniels GD, Kirkpatrick JB (2006a) Does variation in garden characteristics influence the conservation of birds in suburbia? Biological Conservation 133:326–335CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  20. Daniels GD, Kirkpatrick JB (2006b) Comparing the characteristics of front and back domestic gardens in Hobart, Tasmania, Australia. Landscape and Urban Planning 78:344–352CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  21. Davies ZG, Fuller RA, Loram A, Irvine KN, Sims V, Gaston KJ (2009) A national scale inventory of resource provision for biodiversity within domestic gardens. Biological Conservation 142:761–777CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  22. de Vries S, Verheij RA, Groenewegen PP, Spreeuwenberg P (2003) Natural environments––healthy environments? An exploratory analysis of the relationship between greenspace and health. Environment and Planning A 35:1717–1731CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  23. Defra (2002) Working with the grain of nature: a biodiversity strategy for England. Defra, LondonGoogle Scholar
  24. Defra (2003) Measuring progress: baseline assessment. Defra, LondonGoogle Scholar
  25. DETR (1999) Planning policy guidance 3: housing. Stationery Office, LondonGoogle Scholar
  26. Dickman CR, Doncaster CP (1987) The ecology of small mammals in urban habitats. I. Populations in a patchy environment. Journal of Animal Ecology 56:629–640CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  27. Doncaster CP (1994) Factors regulating local variations in abundance: Field tests on hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus). Oikos 69:182–192CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  28. Edinburgh Biodiversity Partnership (2010) The Edinburgh biodiversity action plan 2010–2015. Edinburgh City Council, EdinburghGoogle Scholar
  29. Fetridge ED, Ascher JS, Langellotto GA (2008) The bee fauna of residential gardens in a suburb of New York City (Hymenoptera: Apoidea). Annals of the Entomological Society of America 101:1067–1077CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  30. French K, Major R, Hely K (2005) Use of native and exotic garden plants by suburban nectarivorous birds. Biological Conservation 121:545–559CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  31. Fuller RA, Irvine KN, Devine-Wright P, Warren PH, Gaston KJ (2007) Psychological benefits of green space increase with biodiversity. Biology Letters 3:390–394CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. Fuller RA, Warren PH, Armsworth PR, Barbosa O, Gaston KJ (2008) Garden bird feeding predicts the structure of urban avian assemblages. Diversity and Distributions 14:131–137CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  33. Fuller RA, Tratalos J, Warren PH, Davies RG, Pępkowska A, Gaston KJ (2010) Environment and biodiversity. In: Jenks M, Jones C (eds) Dimensions of the sustainable city. Springer Science, Dordrecht, pp 75–103Google Scholar
  34. Gaston KJ, Warren PH, Thompson K, Smith RM (2005a) Urban domestic gardens (II): experimental tests of methods for increasing biodiversity. Biodiversity and Conservation 14:395–413CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  35. Gaston KJ, Warren PH, Thompson K, Smith RM (2005b) Urban domestic gardens (IV): the extent of the resource and its features. Biodiversity and Conservation 14:3327–3349CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  36. Gaston KJ, Cush P, Ferguson S, Frost P, Gaston S, Knight D et al (2007a) Improving the contribution of urban gardens for wildlife: some guiding propositions. British Wildlife 18:171–177Google Scholar
  37. Gaston KJ, Fuller RA, Loram A, MacDonald C, Power S, Dempsey N (2007b) Urban domestic gardens (XI): Variation in urban wildlife gardening in the UK. Biodiversity and Conservation 16:3227–3238CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  38. Gebauer J (2005) Plant species diversity of home gardens in El Obeid, Central Sudan. Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development in the Tropics and Subtropics 106:97–103Google Scholar
  39. Glasgow Biodiversity Action Plan Steering Group (2008) Glasgow City biodiversity action plan: built up areas and gardens. Glasgow City Council, GlasgowGoogle Scholar
  40. Goddard MA, Dougill AJ, Benton TG (2010) Scaling up from gardens: biodiversity conservation in urban environments. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 25:90–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  41. González-García A, Sal AG (2008) Private urban greenspaces or “patios” as a key element in the urban ecology of tropical Central America. Human Ecology 36:291–300CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  42. González-García A, Belliure J, Gómez-Sal A, Dávila P (2009) The role of urban greenspaces in fauna conservation: the case of the iguana Ctenosaura similis in the “patios” of León city, Nicaragua. Biodiversity and Conservation 18:1909–1920CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  43. Goulson D, Hughes WOH, Derwent LC, Stout JC (2002) Colony growth of the bumblebee, Bombus terrestris, in improved and conventional agricultural and suburban habitats. Oecologia 130:267–273Google Scholar
  44. Gross H, Lane N (2007) Landscapes of the lifespan: exploring accounts of own gardens and gardening. Journal of Environmental Psychology 27:225–241CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  45. Hartig T, Mang M, Evans GW (1991) Restorative effects of natural environment experiences. Environment and Behaviour 23:3–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  46. Herzog TR, Black AM, Fountaine KA, Knotts DJ (1997) Reflection and attentional recovery as distinctive benefits of restorative environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology 17:165–170CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  47. Irvine KN, Warber SL (2002) Greening healthcare: practicing as if the natural environment really mattered. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine 8:76–83Google Scholar
  48. Irvine KN, Fuller RA, Devine-Wright P, Tratalos J, Payne SR, Warren PH et al (2010) Ecological and psychological value of urban green space. In: Jenks M, Jones C (eds) Dimensions of the sustainable city. Springer Science, Dordrecht, pp 215–237Google Scholar
  49. Kaplan R, Kaplan S (1989) The experience of nature: a psychological perspective. Cambridge University Press, CambridgeGoogle Scholar
  50. Katcher A, Beck A (1987) Health and caring for living things. Anthrozoos 1:175–183Google Scholar
  51. Keisling FM, Manning CM (2010) How green is your thumb? Environmental gardening identity and ecological gardening practices. Journal of Environmental Psychology 30:315–327CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  52. Kirkpatrick JB, Daniels GD, Zagorski T (2007) Explaining variation in front gardens between suburbs of Hobart, Tasmania, Australia. Landscape and Urban Planning 79:314–322CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  53. Kirkpatrick JB, Daniels GD, Davison A (2009) An antipodean test of spatial contagion in front garden character. Landscape and Urban Planning 93:103–110CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  54. Kuo FE (2001) Coping with poverty: impacts of environment and attention in the inner city. Environment and Behaviour 33:5–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  55. Kuo FE, Sullivan WC (2001) Environment and crime in the inner city. Does vegetation decrease crime? Environment and Behaviour 33:343–367Google Scholar
  56. Leather P, Pyrgas M, Beale D, Lawrence C (1998) Windows in the workplace. Environment and Behaviour 30:739–763CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  57. Lepczyk CA, Mertig AG, Liu J (2004) Assessing landowner activities related to birds across rural-to-urban landscapes. Environmental Management 33:10–125CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  58. Loram A, Tratalos J, Warren PH, Gaston KJ (2007) Urban domestic gardens (X): The extent and structure of the resource in five major cities. Landscape Ecology 22:601–615CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  59. Loram A, Thompson K, Warren PH, Gaston KJ (2008a) Urban domestic gardens (XII): the richness and composition of the flora in five cities. Journal of Vegetation Science 19:321–330CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  60. Loram A, Warren PH, Gaston KJ (2008b) Urban domestic gardens (XIII): the characteristics of gardens in five cities. Environmental Management 42:361–376CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  61. Maas J, Verheij RA, Groenewegen PP, de Vries S, Spreeuwenberg P (2006) Green space, urbanity, and health: How strong is the relation? Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 60:587–592CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  62. Maller C, Townsend M, Pryor A, Brown P, St. Leger L (2005) Healthy nature healthy people: “Contact with nature” as an upstream health promotion intervention for populations. Health Promotion International 21:45–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  63. Mathieu R, Freeman C, Aryal J (2007) Mapping private gardens in urban areas using object-orientated techniques and very high-resolution satellite imagery. Landscape and Urban Planning 81:179–192CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  64. Miller JR (2005) Biodiversity conservation and the extinction of experience. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 20:430–434CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  65. Moore EO (1981) A prison environment’s effect on health care service demands. Journal of Environmental Systems 11:17–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  66. Murray D (2004) Gardening and the nation––The biggest ever research study into the UK’s gardeners. BBC Worldwide, LondonGoogle Scholar
  67. Natural England (2003) Plants for wildlife-friendly gardens. Natural England, UKGoogle Scholar
  68. Newcastle Biodiversity Partnership Steering Group (2001) Your wildlife. The Newcastle biodiversity action plan. Newcastle City Council, NewcastleGoogle Scholar
  69. Parsons R, Tassinary LG, Ulrich RS, Hebl MR, Grossman-Alexander M (1998) The view from the road: Implications for stress recovery and immunisation. Journal of Environmental Psychology 18:113–140CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  70. Pyle RM (2003) Nature matrix: reconnecting people and nature. Oryx 37:206–214CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  71. Ryall C, Hatherell P (2003) A Survey of strategies adopted by UK wildlife trusts in the promotion of gardening for wildlife. The Environmentalist 23:81–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  72. Savard J-PL, Clergeau P, Mennechez G (2000) Biodiversity concepts and urban ecosystems. Landscape and Urban Planning 48:131–142CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  73. Smith RM, Gaston KJ, Warren PH, Thompson K (2005) Urban domestic gardens (V): relationships between landcover composition, housing and landscape. Landscape Ecology 20:235–253CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  74. Smith RM, Gaston KJ, Warren PH, Thompson K (2006a) Urban domestic gardens (VI): environmental correlates of invertebrate species richness. Biodiversity and Conservation 15:2415–2438CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  75. Smith RM, Gaston KJ, Warren PH, Thompson K (2006b) Urban domestic gardens (VIII): environmental correlates of invertebrate abundance. Biodiversity and Conservation 15:2515–2545CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  76. Smith RM, Gaston KJ, Warren PH, Thompson K (2006c) Urban domestic gardens (IX): composition and richness of the vascular plant flora, and implications for native biodiversity. Biological Conservation 129:312–322CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  77. Smith RM, Thompson K, Warren PH, Gaston KJ (2010) Urban domestic gardens (XIII): Composition of the bryophyte and lichen floras, and determinants of species richness. Biological Conservation 143:873–882CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  78. Sperling CD, Lortie CJ (2010) The importance of urban backgardens on plant and invertebrate recruitment: A field microcosm experiment. Urban Ecosystems 13:223–235CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  79. Stigsdotter UA, Grahn P (2004) A garden at your workplace may decrease stress. In: Dilani A (ed) Design and health III––Health promotion through environmental design. Research Centre for Design and Health, Stockholm, pp 147–157Google Scholar
  80. Stilgoe JR (2001) Gone barefoot lately? American Journal of Preventive Medicine 20:243–244CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  81. Sullivan WC, Kuo FE, Depooter SF (2004) The fruit of urban nature: vital neighbourhood spaces. Environment and Behaviour 36:678–700CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  82. Tait CJ, Daniels CB, Hill RS (2005) Changes in species assemblages within the Adelaide metropolitan area, Australia 1836–2002. Ecological Applications 15:346–359CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  83. Takano T, Nakamura K, Watanabe M (2002) Urban residential environments and senior citizens longevity in megacity areas: the importance of walkable green spaces. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 56:913–918CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  84. Thompson K, Austin KC, Smith RH, Warren PH, Angold PG, Gaston KJ (2003) Urban domestic gardens (I): putting small-scale plant diversity in context. Journal of Vegetation Science 14:71–78CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  85. Ulrich RS (1984) View through a window may influence recovery from surgery. Science 224:420–421CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  86. United Nations (2007) World population prospects: the 2006 revision. United Nations, New YorkGoogle Scholar
  87. van Heezik Y, Smyth R, Mathieu R (2008) Diversity of native and exotic birds across an urban gradient in a New Zealand city. Landscape and Urban Planning 87:223–232CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  88. Vickery ML (1995) Gardens: the neglected habitat. In: Pullin AS (ed) Ecology and conservation of butterflies. Chapman and Hall, London, pp 123–134CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  89. Zagorski T, Kirkpatrick JB, Stratford E (2004) Gardens and the bush: gardeners’ attitudes, garden types and invasives. Australian Geographical Studies 42:207–220CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011

Authors and Affiliations

  • Alison Loram
    • 1
  • Philip Warren
    • 1
  • Ken Thompson
    • 1
  • Kevin Gaston
    • 1
  1. 1.Department of Animal and Plant SciencesUniversity of SheffieldSheffieldUnited Kingdom

Personalised recommendations