The Behavior Analyst

, Volume 27, Issue 1, pp 7–23 | Cite as

Effects of rate building on fluent performance: A review and commentary

Article
First Online:

Abstract

The use of rate-building procedures to encourage the production of high response rates and to develop fluency has been increasingly justified by research on precision teaching and automaticity. Rate-building procedures often ensure both speed and accuracy, and claims have been made that such procedures result in greater retention, persistence, and generalization of trained skills, as well as preference by students. Given the potential importance of these claims for behavior analysts and educators alike, this review assesses the validity, generality, and implications of research on rate building. The review revealed sparse empirical evidence that retention, persistence, and generalization of skills result from the use of rate-building procedures when the effects of practice and reinforcement rate are controlled. Given the results of this review, the implications are discussed in the context of behavior-analytic research (e.g., behavioral momentum), and further research is recommended.

Key words

rate building fluency education behavior analysis practice response strength 
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Ashbaugh, R., & McLaughlin, T. (1997). Precisely teaching street names and locations. Journal of Precision Teaching and Celeration, 14, 19–23.Google Scholar
  2. Ayllon, T., Garber, S., & Pisor, K. (1976). Reducing time limits: A means to increase behavior of retardates. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 9, 247–252.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  3. Beck, R., & Clement, R. (1991). The Great Falls Precision Teaching Project: An historical examination. Journal of Precision Teaching, 8, 8–12.Google Scholar
  4. Berquam, E. (1981). The relation between frequency of response and retention, on a paired associates task. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Florida.Google Scholar
  5. Berquam, S. (1985). Precision teaching: Does it work? B. C. Journal of Special Education, 9, 321–327.Google Scholar
  6. Binder, C. (1988). Precision teaching: Measuring and attaining exemplary academic achievement. Youth Policy, 10, 12–15.Google Scholar
  7. Binder, C. (1996). Behavioral fluency: Evolution of a new paradigm. The Behavior Analyst, 19, 163–197.PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  8. Binder, C, Haughton, E., & VanEyk, D. (1995). Increasing endurance by building fluency: Precision teaching attention span. Journal of Precision Teaching, 12, 29–34.Google Scholar
  9. Binder, C, & Watkins, C. L. (1990). Precision teaching and direct instruction: Measurably superior instructional technology in schools. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 2, 74–91.Google Scholar
  10. Brunner, M., McLaughlin, T. F, & Sweeney, W. J. (1993). Employing error drill and feedback to improve the legibility of manuscript and cursive handwriting. Journal of Precision Teaching, 11, 32–37.Google Scholar
  11. Bucklin, B. R., Dickinson, A. M., & Brethower, D. M. (2000). A comparison of the effects of fluency training and accuracy training on application and retention. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 13, 140–163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  12. Bullara, D. T., Kimball, J. W., & Cooper, J. O. (1993). An assessment of beginning addition skills without instruction or practice. Journal of Precision Teaching, 11, 11–16.Google Scholar
  13. Carroll, C. L., McCormick, S., & Cooper, J. O. (1991). Effects of a modified repeated reading procedure on reading fluency of severely disabled readers. Journal of Precision Teaching, 8, 16–25.Google Scholar
  14. Carver, R. P., & Hoffman, J. V. (1981). The effect of practice through repeated reading on gain in reading ability using a computer-based instructional system. Reading Research Quarterly, 16, 374–390.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  15. Chiesa, M., & Robertson, A. (2000). Precision teaching and fluency training: Making maths easier for pupils and teachers. Educational Psychology in Practice, 16, 297–310.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. Cooper, J. O. (2000). Tutoring Joe: Winning with the precision teaching team. In W. L. Heward (Ed.), Exceptional children: An introduction to exceptional children (6th ed., pp. 268–270). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall/Merrill.Google Scholar
  17. Critchfield, T. S., & Perone, M. (1990). Verbal self-reports of delayed matching to sample by humans. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 53, 321–344.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  18. Dougherty, K. M., & Johnston, J. M. (1996). Overlearning, fluency, and automaticity. The Behavior Analyst, 19, 289–292.PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  19. Downs, J., & Morin, S. (1990). Improving reading fluency. Teaching Exceptional Children, 22, 38–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  20. Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Römer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100, 363–406.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  21. Evans, S. S., & Evans, W. H. (1985). Frequencies that ensure skill competency. Journal of Precision Teaching, 6, 25–30.Google Scholar
  22. Evans, S. S., Mercer, C. D., & Evans, W. H. (1983). The relationship of frequency to subsequent skill acquisition. Journal of Precision Teaching, 4, 28–34.Google Scholar
  23. Gilbert, T. H. (1957). Overlearning and the retention of meaningful material. Journal of General Psychology, 56, 281–289.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  24. Hanley, G. P., Piazza, C. C, Fisher, W. W., Contrucci, S. A., & Maglieri, K. A. (1997). Evaluation of client preference for function-based treatment packages. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30, 459–473.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  25. Haughton, E. C. (1980). Practicing practices: Learning by activity. Journal of Precision Teaching, 1, 3–20.Google Scholar
  26. Heward, W. L. (1997). Four validated instructional strategies. Behavior and Social Issues, 7, 43–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  27. Howell, K. W., & Lorson-Howell, K. A. (1995). What’s the hurry? Fluency in the classroom. Journal of Precision Teaching, 12, 24–28.Google Scholar
  28. Ivarie, J. J. (1986). Effects of proficiency rates on later performance of a recall and writing behavior. Remedial and Special Education, 7, 25–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  29. Johnson, K. R., & Layng, T. V. J. (1992). Breaking the structuralist barrier: Literacy and numeracy with fluency. American Psychologist, 47, 1475–1490.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  30. Johnson, K. R., & Layng, T V. J. (1994). The Morningside Model of generative instruction. In R. Gardner, III, D. M. Sainato, J. O. Cooper, T. E. Heron, W L. Heward, J. W Eshleman, & T. A. Grossi (Eds.), Behavior analysis in education (pp. 173–197). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.Google Scholar
  31. Johnson, K. R., & Layng, T. V. J. (1996). On terms and procedures: Fluency. The Behavior Analyst, 19, 281–288.PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  32. Jones, K. M., Torgesen, J. K., & Sexton, M. A. (1987). Using computer-guided practice to increase decoding fluency in learning disabled children: A study using the Hint and Hunt I program. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 20, 122–128.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  33. Kessissoglou, S., & Farrell, P. (1995). Whatever happened to precision teaching? British Journal of Special Education, 22, 60–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  34. Kim, C., Carr, J. E., & Templeton, A. (2001). Effects of fluency building on performance over “long” durations and in the presence of a distracting social stimulus. Journal of Precision Teaching and Celeration, 17, 7–26.Google Scholar
  35. Krueger, W. C. F (1929). The effect of over-learning on retention. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 12, 71–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  36. LaBerge, D., & Samuels, S. J. (1974). Toward a theory of automatic information processing in reading. Cognitive Psychology, 6, 293–323.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  37. Lattal, K. A. (1989). Contingencies on response rate and resistance to change. Learning and Motivation, 20, 191–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  38. Lindsley, O. R. (1972). From Skinner to precision teaching. In J. B. Jordan & L. S. Robbins (Eds.), Let’s try doing something else kind of thing: Behavior principles and the exceptional child (pp. 1–11). Arlington, VA: Council for Exceptional Children.Google Scholar
  39. Lindsley, O. R. (1992). Precision teaching: Discoveries and effects. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 51–57.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  40. Lindsley, O. R. (1995). Ten products of fluency. Journal of Precision Teaching, 13, 2–11.Google Scholar
  41. Lindsley, O. R. (1997). Precise instructional design: Guidelines from precision teaching. In C. R. Dills & A. J. Romiszowski (Eds.), Instructional development paradigms (pp. 537–554). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.Google Scholar
  42. Lockhart, K. A. (1979). Behavioral assessment of human preference. The Behavior Analyst, 2, 20–29.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  43. Lovitt, T. C, & Fantasia, K. (2000). A precision teaching project with learning disabled children. Journal of Precision Teaching, 16, 30–38.Google Scholar
  44. Mace, F. C, Lalli, J. S., Shea, M. C, Lalli, E. P., West, B. J., Roberts, M., et al. (1990). The momentum of behavior in a natural setting. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 54, 163–172.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  45. Mayfield, K. H., & Chase, P. N. (2002). The effects of cumulative practice on mathematics problem solving. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 35, 105–123.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  46. McDade, C. E., Rubenstein, S. B., & Olander, C. P. (1983). Parallel between frequency testing and performance on essay questions in a theories of personality course. Journal of Precision Teaching, 4, 1–5.Google Scholar
  47. McDowell, C., & Keenan, M. (2001). Developing fluency and endurance in a child diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34, 345–348.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  48. Mercer, C. D., Mercer, A. R., & Evans, S. (1982). The use of frequency in establishing instructional aims. Journal of Precision Teaching, 3, 57–59.Google Scholar
  49. Miller, A. D., Hall, S. W., & Heward, W. L. (1995). Effects of sequential 1-minute time trials with and without inter-trial feedback and self-correction on general and special education students’ fluency with math facts. Journal of Behavioral Education, 5, 319–345.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  50. Miller, A. D., & Heward, W. L. (1992). Do your students really know their math facts? Using daily time trials to build fluency. Intervention in School and Clinic, 28, 98–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  51. National Research Council. (1998). Instructional strategies for kindergarten and the primary grades. In C. E. Show, M. S. Burns, & P. Griffin (Eds.), Preventing reading difficulties in young children (pp. 172–225). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.Google Scholar
  52. Nevin, J. A. (1979). Reinforcement schedules and response strength. In M. D. Zeiler & P. Harzern (Eds.), Reinforcement and the organization of behaviour (pp. 117–158). Chichester, England: Wiley.Google Scholar
  53. Nevin, J. A. (1995). Contingencies of reinforcement and behavioral momentum: Research and applications. Revista Mexicana de Análisis de la Conducta, 21, 107–122.Google Scholar
  54. Nevin, J. A., & Grace, R. C. (2000). Behavioral momentum and the law of effect. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 23, 73–130. (includes commentary)CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  55. Nevin, J. A., Grace, R. C, Holland, S., & McLean, A. P. (2001). Variable-ratio versus variable-interval schedules: Response rate, resistance to change, and preference. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 76, 43–74.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  56. Olander, C. P., Collins, D. L., McArthur, B. L., Watts, R. O., & McDade, C. E. (1986). Retention among college students: A comparison of traditional versus precision teaching. Journal of Precision Teaching, 6, 80–82.Google Scholar
  57. Poison, D. A. D. (1996). Fostering multiple repertoires in undergraduate behavior analysis students. The Behavior Analyst, 18, 293–299.Google Scholar
  58. Raggio, S., & Bitgood, S. C. (1982). The effect of number of math drills per day on math performance. Journal of Precision Teaching, 3, 50.Google Scholar
  59. Samuels, S. J. (2002). Reading fluency: Its development and assessment. In A. E. Farstrup & S. J. Samuels (Eds.), What research has to say about reading instruction (pp. 166–183). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.Google Scholar
  60. Samuels, S. J., Miller, N., & Eisenberg, P. (1979). Practice effects on the unit of word recognition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 71, 514–520.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  61. Schwartz, I. S., & Baer, D. M. (1991). Social validity assessments: Is current practice state of the art? Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24, 189–204.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  62. Shimamune, S., & Jitsumori, M. (1999). The effects of grammar instruction and fluency training on the learning of the and a by native speakers of Japanese. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 16, 3–16.PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  63. Shirley, M. J., & Pennypacker, H. S. (1994). The effects of performance criteria on learning and retention of spelling words. Journal of Precision Teaching, 12, 73–86.Google Scholar
  64. Skinner, B. F (1938). The behavior of organisms. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.Google Scholar
  65. Skinner, B. F (1957). Verbal behavior. Acton, MA: Copley Publishing Group.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  66. Teigen, T., Malanga, P. R., & Sweeney, W. J. (2001). Combining repeated readings and error correction to improve reading fluency. Journal of Precision Teaching and Celeration, 17, 58–67.Google Scholar
  67. Van Houten, R., Morrison, E., Jarvis, R., & McDonald, M. (1974). The effects of explicit timing and feedback on compositional response rate in elementary school children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 7, 547–555.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  68. Van Houten, R., & Thompson, C. (1976). The effects of explicit timing on math performance. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 9, 227–230.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  69. Weinstein, G., & Cooke, N. L. (1992). The effects of two repeated reading interventions on generalization of fluency. Learning Disability Quarterly, 15, 21–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  70. Weiss, M. J. (2001). Expanding ABA interventions in intensive programs for children with autism: The inclusion of natural environment training and fluency based instruction. The Behavior Analyst Today, 2, 182–185. Retrieved January 18, 2004, from http://www.behavior-analyst-online.org/BAT/BAT23.pdfCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  71. West, R. P., Young, R., & Spooner, F. (1995). Precision teaching: An introduction. Journal of Precision Teaching, 12, 2–8.Google Scholar
  72. Whalen, K. P., Willis, R. J., & Sweeney, W J. (1993). Using 1-minute time trials and 4-minute practice sessions to improve a student’s performance of fraction problems. Journal of Precision Teaching, 11, 2–10.Google Scholar
  73. White, O. R. (1984). Aim*Star Wars: Setting aims that compete. Journal of Precision Teaching, 5, 55–64.Google Scholar
  74. Young, K. R., West, R. P., & Crawford, A. (1985). The acquisition and maintenance of reading skills by intellectually handicapped deaf students. Journal of Precision Teaching, 5, 73–86.Google Scholar
  75. Young, K. R., West, R. P., Howard, V. F., & Whitney, R. (1986). Acquisition, fluency training, generalization, and maintenance of dressing skills of two developmentally disabled children. Education and Treatment of Children, 9, 16–29.Google Scholar

Copyright information

© Association for Behavior Analysis International 2004

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 1.Department of PsychologyWest Virginia UniversityMorgantownUSA
  2. 2.ParsonsUSA

Personalised recommendations