Journal of Endocrinological Investigation

, Volume 18, Issue 7, pp 518–532 | Cite as

Apparent mineralocorticoid excess syndromes

  • M. Shimojo
  • Paul M. Stewart
Views Facts, perspectives and opinions on selected topics

Keywords

Cortisol Aldosterone Corticosterone Cortisone Mineralocorticoid Receptor 
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. 1.
    Biglieri E.G., Kater C.E. Steroid characteristics of mineralocorticoid adrenocortical hypertension. Clin. Chem. 37: 1843, 1991.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  2. 2.
    Mantero F., Armanini D., Boscaro M., Carpene G., Fallo F., Opocher G., Rocco S., Scaroni C., Sonino N. Steroids and hypertension. J. Steroid. Biochem. Mol. Biol. 40: 35, 1991.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  3. 3.
    Fraser R., Davies D.L., Connell J.M.C. Hormones and hypertension. Clin. Endocrinol. 31: 701, 1989.Google Scholar
  4. 4.
    Melby J.C. Clinical Review 1; Endocrine Hypertension. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 69: 697, 1989.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  5. 5.
    Arriza J.L., Weinberger C., Cerelli G., Glaser T.M., Handelin B.L., Housman D.E., Evans R.M. Cloning of human mineralocorticoid receptor complementary DNA: structural and functional kinship with the glucocorticoid receptor. Science 237: 268, 1987.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  6. 6.
    Stewart P.M., Wallace A.M., Atherden S.M., Shearing C.H., Edwards C.R.W. Mineralocorticoid activity of carbenoxolone: contrasting effects of carbenoxolone and liquorice on 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity in man. Clin. Sci. 78: 49, 1990.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  7. 7.
    Ulick S., Levine L.S., Gunczler P., Zanconato G., Ramirez L.C., Rauh W., Rösier A., Bradlow H.L., New M.L. A syndrome of apparent mineralocorticoid excess associated with defects in the peripheral metabolism of cortisol. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 49: 757, 1979.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  8. 8.
    Whitworth J.A., Stewart P.M., Burt D., Atherden S.M., Edwards C.R.W. The kidney is the major site of cortisone production in man. Clin. Endocrinol. 31: 355, 1989.Google Scholar
  9. 9.
    Orth D.N., Kovacs W.J., Debold C.R. The adrenal cortex. In: Wilson J.D., Foster D.W. (Eds.), Williams Text Book of Endocrinology, (Ed. 8.) W.B. Saunders company, Philadelphia, 1992, p. 489.Google Scholar
  10. 10.
    Shackleton C.H.L., Stewart P.M. The hypertension of apparent mineralocorticoid excess (AME) syndrome. In: Biglieri E.G., Melby J.C. (Eds.), Endocrine hypertension. Raven Press, New York, 1990, p. 155.Google Scholar
  11. 11.
    Amelung D., Hübener H.J., Roka L., Meyerheim G. Conversion of cortisone to compound F. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 13: 1125, 1953.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  12. 12.
    Monder C., White P.C. 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. Vitam. Horm. 47: 187, 1993.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  13. 13.
    Stewart P.M. 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. In: Sheppard M.C., Stewart P.M. (Eds.), Baillière’s Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. Baillière Tindall, London, 1994, vol. 8, No. 2, p. 357.Google Scholar
  14. 14.
    Lakshmi V., Monder C. Purification and characterization of the corticosteroid 11ß-dehydrogenase component of the rat liver 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase complex. Endocrinology 123: 2390, 1988.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  15. 15.
    Agarwal A.K., Tusie-Luna M.T., Monder C., White P.C. Expression of 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase using recombinant vaccinia virus. Mol. Endocrinol. 4: 1827, 1990.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  16. 16.
    Monder C., Lakshmi V. Corticosteroid 11ß-dehydrogenate of rat tissues: immunological studies. Endocrinology. 126: 2435, 1990.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  17. 17.
    Agarwal A.K., Monder C., Eckstein B., White P.C. Cloning and expression of rat cDNA encoding corticosteroid 11ß-dehydrogenase. J. Biol. Chem. 264: 18939, 1989.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  18. 18.
    Krozowski Z., Stuchbery S., White P., Monder C., Funder J.W. Characterization of 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase gene expression: indication of multiple unique forms of messenger ribonucleic acid in the rat kidney. Endocrinology. 127: 3009, 1990.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  19. 19.
    Whorwood C.B., Franklyn J.A., Sheppard M.C., Stewart P.M. Tissue localization of 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase and its relationship to the glucocorticoid receptor. J. Steroid. Biochem. Mol. Biol. 41: 21, 1992.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  20. 20.
    Tannin G.M., Agarwal A.K. Monder C., New M.I., White P.C. The human gene for 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. J. Biol. Chem. 266: 16653, 1991.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  21. 21.
    Stewart P.M., Murry B.A., Mason J.I. Human kidney 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase is a high affinity nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide-dependent enzyme and differs from the cloned type I isoform. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 79: 480, 1994.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  22. 22.
    Whorwood C.B., Mason J.I., Ricketts M.L., Howie A.J., Stewart P.M. Detection of human 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms using reverse-transcriptase-poly-merase chain reaction and localization of the type 2 isoform to renal collecting ducts. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 110: R7, 1995.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  23. 23.
    Edwards C.R.W., Stewart P.M., Burt D., Brett L., McIntyre M.A., Sutanto W.S., de Kloet E.R., Monder C. Localisation of 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase-tissue specific protector of the mineralocorticoid receptor. Lancet 11: 986, 1988.Google Scholar
  24. 24.
    Rundle S.E., Funder J.W., Lakshmi V., Monder C. The intrarenal localization of mineralocorticoid receptors and 11ß-dehydrogenase: immunocyto-chemical studies. Endocrinology. 125: 1700, 1989.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  25. 25.
    Stewart P.M., Whorwood C.B., Barber P., Gregory J., Monder C., Franklyn J.A., Sheppard M.C. Localization of renal 11ß-dehydrogenase by in situ hybridization: autocrine not paracrine protector of the mineralocorticoid receptor. Endocrinology. 128: 2129, 1991.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  26. 26.
    Whorwood C.B., Barber P.C., Gregory J., Sheppard M.C., Stewart P.M. 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase and corticosteroid hormone receptors in the rat colon. Am. J. Physiol. 264: E951, 1993.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  27. 27.
    Krozowski Z., Wendell K., Ahima R., Harlan R. Type I corticosteroid receptor-like immunoreactivity in the rat salivary glands and distal colon: modulation by corticosteroids. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 85: 31, 1992.Google Scholar
  28. 28.
    Mercer W.R., Krozowski Z.S. Localization of an 11ß hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity to the distal nephron. Evidence for the existence of two species of dehydrogenase in the rat kidney. Endocrinology. 130: 540, 1992.Google Scholar
  29. 29.
    Walker B.R., Campbell J.C., Williams B.C., Edwards C.R.W. Tissue-specific distribution of the NAD+-dependent isoform of 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. Endocrinology. 131: 970, 1992.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  30. 30.
    Rusvai E., Náray-Fejes-Tóth A. A new isoform of 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in aldosterone target cells. J. Biol. Chem. 268: 10717, 1993.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  31. 31.
    Whorwood C.B., Ricketts M.L., Stewart P.M. Epithelial cell localization of type 2 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in rat and human colon. Endocrinology. 135: 2533, 1994.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  32. 32.
    Brown R.W., Chapman K.E., Edwards C.R.W., Seckl J.R. Human placental 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase: evidence for partial purification of a distinct NAD-dependent isoform. Endocrinology. 132: 2614, 1993.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  33. 33.
    Stewart P.M., Murry B.A., Mason I. Type 2 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in human fetal tissues. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 78: 1529, 1994.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  34. 34.
    Albiston A.L., Obeyesekere V.R., Smith R.E., Krozowski Z.S. Cloning and tissue distribution of the human 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 enzyme. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 105: R11, 1994.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  35. 35.
    Agarwal A.K., Mune T., Monder C., White P.C. NAD(+)-dependent isoform of 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. Cloning and characterization of cDNA from sheep kidney. J. Biol. Chem. 269: 25959, 1994.Google Scholar
  36. 36.
    Werder E., Zachman M., Vollmin J.A., Veyrat R., Prader A. Unusual steroid excretion in a child with low-renin hypertension. Res. Steroids 6: 385, 1974.Google Scholar
  37. 37.
    Sann L., Revol A., Zachmann M., Legrand J.C., Bethenod M. Unusual low plasma renin hypertension in a child. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 43: 265, 1975.Google Scholar
  38. 38.
    New M.I., Levine L.S., Biglieri E.G., Pareira J., Ulick S. Evidence for an unidentified steroid in a child with apparent mineralocorticoid hypertension. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 44: 924, 1977.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  39. 39.
    Liddle G.W., Bledsoe T., Coppage W.S. A familial renal disorder simulating primary aldos-teronism but with negligible aldosterone secretion. Trans. Assoc. Am. Physicians. 76: 199, 1963.Google Scholar
  40. 40.
    Hyman P.E., Sha’afi R.I., Tan S.Y., Hintz R. Liddle’s syndrome. J. Pediatr. 95: 77, 1979.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  41. 41.
    Milora R., Vagnucci A., Goodman A.D. A syndrome resembling primary aldosteronism but without mineralocorticoid excess (MCE). Clin. Res. 15: 482, 1967. (abstract)Google Scholar
  42. 42.
    Helbock H.J., Reynolds J.W. Pseudoaldosteronism (Liddle’s syndrome): evidence for increased cell membrane permeability to Na+. Pediatr. Res. 4: 455, 1970. (abstract)Google Scholar
  43. 43.
    Shackleton C.H.L., Honour J.W., Dillon M.J., Chantier C., Jones R.W. Hypertension in a four-year-old child; gas chromatographic and mass spectrometric evidence for deficient hepatic metabolism of steroids. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 50: 786, 1980.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  44. 44.
    Ulick S., Ramirez L.C., New M.I. An abnormality in steroid reductive metabolism in a hypertensive syndrome. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 44: 799, 1977.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  45. 45.
    Marver D., Edelman I.S. Dihydrocortisol: a potential mineralocorticoid. J. Steroid. Biochem. 9: 1, 1978.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  46. 46.
    Oberfield S.E., Levine L.S., Carey R.M., Greig F., Ulick S., New M.I. Metabolic and blood pressure responses to hydrocortisone in the syndrome of apparent mineralocorticoid excess. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 56: 332, 1983.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  47. 47.
    Fiselier T.J.W., Otten B.J., Monnens L.A.H., Honour J.W., van Munster P.J.J. Low-renin, low-aldosterone hypertension and abnormal cortisol metabolism in a 19-month old child. Horm. Res. 16: 107, 1982.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  48. 48.
    Honour J.W., Dillon M.J., Levin M., Shah V. Fatal, low renin hypertension associated with a disturbance of cortisol metabolism. Arch. Dis. Child. 58: 1018, 1983.PubMedCentralPubMedGoogle Scholar
  49. 49.
    Harinck H.I.J., van Brummelen P., van Seters A.P., Moolenaar A.J. Apparent mineralocorticoid excess and deficient 11ß-oxidation of cortisol in a young female. Clin. Endocrinol. 21: 505, 1984.Google Scholar
  50. 50.
    Shackleton C.H.L., Rodriguez J., Arteaga E., Lopez J.M., Winter J.S.D. Congenital 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase deficiency associated with juvenile hypertension: corticosteroid metabolite profiles of four patients and their families. Clin. Endocrinol. 22: 701, 1985.Google Scholar
  51. 51.
    Monder C., Shackleton C.H.L., Bradlow H.L., New M.I., Stoner E., Iohan F., Lakshmi V. The syndrome of apparent mineralocorticoid excess: its association with 11ß-dehydrogenase and 5ß-reductase deficiency and some consequences for corticosteroid metabolism. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 63: 550, 1986.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  52. 52.
    Dimartino-Nardi J., Stoner E., Martin K., Balfe J.M., Jose P.A., New M.I. New findings in apparent mineralocorticoid excess. Clin. Endocrinol. 27: 49, 1987.Google Scholar
  53. 53.
    Nikkilä H., Tannin G.M., New M.I., Taylor N.F., Kalaitzoglou G., Monder C., White P.C. Defect in the HSD11 gene encoding 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase are not found in patients with apparent mineralocorticoid excess or 11-oxoreductase deficiency. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 77: 687, 1993.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  54. 54.
    Batista M.C., Mendonça B.B., Kater C.E., Arnhold I.J.P., Rocha A., Nicolau W., Bloise W. Spironolactone-reversible rickets associated with 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase deficiency syndrome. J. Pediatr. 109: 989, 1986.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  55. 55.
    Milford D.V., Shackleton C.H.L., Stewart P.M. Mineralocorticoid hypertension and congenital deficiency of 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in a family with the syndrome of ‘apparent’ mineralocorticoid excess. Clin. Endocrinol. 42: In press, 1995.Google Scholar
  56. 56.
    Edwards C.R.W., Stewart P.M., Nairn I.M., Grieve J., Shackleton C.H.L. Cushing’s disease of the kidney. J. Endocrinol. 104 (S): 53, 1985. (abstract).Google Scholar
  57. 57.
    Stewart P.M., Corrie J.E.T., Shackleton C.H.L., Edwards C.R.W. Syndrome of apparent mineralocorticoid excess a defect in the cortisol-cortisone shuttle. J. Clin. Invest. 82: 340, 1988.PubMedCentralPubMedGoogle Scholar
  58. 58.
    Ulick S., Tedde R., Mantero F. Pathogenesis of the type 2 variant of the syndrome of apparent mineralocorticoid excess. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 70: 200, 1990.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  59. 59.
    Ulick S., Tedde R., Wang J.Z. Defective ring A reduction of cortisol as the major metabolic error in the syndrome of apparent mineralocorticoid excess. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 74: 593, 1992.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  60. 60.
    Tedde R., Pala A., Melis A., Ulick S. Evidence for cortisol as the mineralocorticoid in the syndrome of apparent mineralocorticoid excess. J. Endocrinol. Invest. 15: 471, 1992.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  61. 61.
    Mantero F., Tedde R., Opocher G., Dessi Fulgheri P., Amaldi G., Ulick S. Apparent mineralocorticoid excess type II. Steroids 59: 80, 1994.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  62. 62.
    Speiser P.W., Riddick L.M., Martin K., New M.I. Investigation of the mechanism of hypertension in apparent mineralocorticoid excess. Metabolism 42: 843, 1993.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  63. 63.
    New M.I. The prismatic case of apparent mineralocorticoid excess J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 79: 1, 1994.Google Scholar
  64. 64.
    Winter J.S.D., McKenzie J.K. A syndrome of low-renin hypertension in children. In: New M.I., Levine L.S. (Eds.), Juvenile hypertension. Raven Press, New York, 1977, p. 123.Google Scholar
  65. 65.
    Savage M.W., Barton R.N., Dornan T.L., Horan M.A., Robins A.J., Taylor N.F. Increased metabolic clearance of cortisol in corticosteroid 11-reductase deficiency. J. Endocrinol. 129 S): 219, 1991 (abstract).Google Scholar
  66. 66.
    Taylor N.F., Bartlett W.A., Dawson D.J., Enoch B.A. Cortisone reductase deficiency; evidence for a new inborn error in metabolism of adrenal steroids. J. Endocrinol. 102 (S): 90, 1984 (abstract).Google Scholar
  67. 67.
    Phillipou G., Higgins B.A. A new defect in the peripheral conversion of cortisone to cortisol. J. Steroid. Biochem. 22: 435, 1985.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  68. 68.
    Rodin A., Thakkar H., Taylor N., Clayton R. Hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome — Evidence of dysregulation of 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. N. Engl. J. Med. 330: 460, 1994.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  69. 69.
    Davis E.A., Morris D.J. Medicinal uses of licorice through the millennia: the good and plenty of it. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 78: 1, 1991.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  70. 70.
    Reevers F. Behandling van uleus ventriculi in uleus duodeni met succus liquriate. Ned. Tijdschr. Geneesk. 92: 2968, 1946.Google Scholar
  71. 71.
    Card W.I., Mitchell W., Strong J.A., Taylor N.R.W., Tompsett S.L., Wilson J.M.G. Effects of liquorice and its derivatives on salt and water metabolism. Lancet i: 663, 1953.Google Scholar
  72. 72.
    Conn J.W., Rovner D.R., Cohen E.L. Licorice-induced pseudoaldosteronism. JAMA 205: 492, 1968.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  73. 73.
    Epstein M.T., Espiner E.A., Donald R.A., Hughes H. Effect of eating liquorice on the renin-angiotensin aldosterone axis in normal subjects. Br. Med. J. 1: 488, 1977.PubMedCentralPubMedGoogle Scholar
  74. 74.
    Epstein M.T., Espiner E.A., Donald R.A., Hughes H. Liquorice toxicity and the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone axis in man. Br. Med. J. 1: 209, 1977.PubMedCentralPubMedGoogle Scholar
  75. 75.
    Blachley J.D., Knochel J.P. Tobacco chewer’s hypokalemia: Licorice revisited. N. Engl. J. Med. 302: 784, 1980.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  76. 76.
    Salassa R.M., Mattox V.R., Rosevear J.W. Inhibition of the “Mineralocorticoid” activity of licorice by spironolactone. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 22: 1156, 1962.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  77. 77.
    Turpie A.G.G., Thomson T.J. Carbenoxolone sodium in the treatment of gastric ulcer with special reference to side-effects. Gut 5: 591, 1965.Google Scholar
  78. 78.
    Ulmann A., Menard J., Corvol P. Binding of glycyrrhetinic acid to kidney mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid receptors. Endocrinology 97: 46, 1975.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  79. 79.
    Armanini D., Karbowiak I., Krozowski Z., Funder J.W., Adam W.R. The mechanism of mineralocorticoid action of carbenoxolone. Endocrinology 111: 1683, 1982.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  80. 80.
    Armanini D., Karbowiak I., Funder J.W. Affinity of liquorice derivatives for mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid receptors. Clin. Endocrinol. 19: 609, 1983.Google Scholar
  81. 81.
    Louis L.H., Conn J.W. Preparation of glycyrrhizinic acid, the electrolyte-active principle of licorice: its effects upon metabolism and upon pituitary-adrenal function in man. J. Lab. Clin. Med. 47: 20, 1956.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  82. 82.
    Elmadjian F., Hope J.M., Pincus G. The action of mono-ammonium glycyrrhizinate on adrenalectomized subjects and its synergism with hydrocortisone. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 16: 338, 1956.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  83. 83.
    Borst J.G.G., Ten Holt S.P., De Vries L.A., Molhuysen L.A. Synergistic action of liquorice and cortisone in Addison’s and Simmonds’s disease. Lancet i: 657, 1953.Google Scholar
  84. 84.
    Girerd R.J., Rassaert C.L., DiPasquale G., Kroc R.L. Endocrine involvement in licorice hypertension. Am. J. Physiol. 198: 718, 1960.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  85. 85.
    Groen J., Pelser H., Willebrands A.F., Kamminga C.E. Extract of licorice for the treatment of Addison’s disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 244: 471, 1951.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  86. 86.
    Groen J., Pelser H., Frenkel M., Kamminga C.E., Willebrands A.F. Effect of glycyrrhizinic acid on the electrolyte metabolism in Addison’s disease. J. Clin. Invest. 31: 87, 1952.PubMedCentralPubMedGoogle Scholar
  87. 87.
    Epstein M.T., Espiner E.A., Donald R.A., Hughes H., Cowles R.J., Lun S. Licorice raises urinary cortisol in man. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 47: 397, 1978.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  88. 88.
    Monder C., Stewart P.M., Lakshmi V., Valentino R., Burt D., Edwards C.R.W. Licorice inhibits corticosteroid 11ß-dehydrogenase of rat kidney and liver: in vivo and in vitro studies. Endocrinology 125: 1046, 1989.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  89. 89.
    Souness G.W., Morris D.J. The antinatriuretic and kaliuretic effects of the glucocorticoids corticosterone and cortisol following pretreatment with carbenoxolone sodium (a liquorice derivative) in the adrenalectomized rat. Endocrinology 124: 1588, 1989.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  90. 90.
    Stewart P.M., Wallace A.M., Valentino R., Burt D., Shackleton C.H.L., Edwards C.R.W. Mineralocorticoid activity of liquolice: 11-ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase deficiency comes of age. Lancet ii: 821, 1987.Google Scholar
  91. 91.
    MacKenzie M.A., Hoefnagels W.H.L., Jansen R.W.M.M., Benraad T.J., Kloppenborg P.W.C. The influence of glycyrrhetinic acid on plasma cortisol and cortisone in healthy young volunteers. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 70: 1637, 1990.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  92. 92.
    Farese R.V., Biglieri E.G., Shackleton C.H.L., Irony I., Gomez-Fontes R. Licorice-induced hypermineralocorticoidism. N. Engl. J. Med. 325: 1223, 1991.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  93. 93.
    Kageyama Y., Suzuki H., Saruta T. Glycyrrhizin induces mineralocorticoid activity through alterations in cortisol metabolism in the human kidney. J. Endocrinol. 135: 147, 1992.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  94. 94.
    Souness G.W., Morris D. The “mineralocorticoid-like” actions conferred on corticosterone by carbenoxolone are inhibited by the mineralocorticoid receptor (type I) antagonist RU28318. Endocrinology 129: 2451, 1991.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  95. 95.
    Whorwood C.B., Sheppard M.C., Stewart P.M. Licorice inhibits 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase messenger ribonucleic acid levels and potentiates glucocorticoid hormone action. Endocrinology 132: 2287, 1993.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  96. 96.
    Stewart P.M., Whorwood C.B. 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity and corticosteroid hormone action. Steroids 59: 90, 1994.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  97. 97.
    Monder C. Corticosteroids, kidneys, sweet roots and dirty drugs. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 78: C95, 1991.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  98. 98.
    Sheppard K., Funder J.W. Mineralocorticoid specificity of renal type I receptors: in vivo binding studies. Am. J. Physiol. 252: E224, 1987.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  99. 99.
    Stephenson G., Krozowski Z., Funder J.W. Extravascular CBG-like sites in rat kidney and mineralocorticoid receptor specificity. Am. J. Physiol. 246: F227, 1984.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  100. 100.
    Funder J.W., Pearce P.T., Smith R., Smith A.I. Mineralocorticoid actin: target tissue specificity is enzyme, not receptor, mediated. Science 242: 583, 1988.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  101. 101.
    Walker B.R., Stewart P.M., Shackleton C.H.L., Padfield P.L., Edwards C.R.W. Deficient inactivation of cortisol by 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in essential hypertension. Clin. Endocrinol. 39: 221, 1993.Google Scholar
  102. 102.
    Walker B.R., Yau J.L., Brett L.P., Seckl J.R., Monder C., Williams B.C., Edwards C.R.W. 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in vascular smooth muscle and heart: implications for cardiovascular responses to glucocorticoids. Endocrinology 129: 3305, 1991.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  103. 103.
    Walker B.R., Connacher A.A., Webb D.J., Edwards C.R.W. Glucocorticoids and blood pressure: a role for the cortisol/cortisone shuttle in the control of vascular tone in man. Clin. Sci. 83: 171, 1992.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  104. 104.
    Edwards C.R.W., Benediktsson R., Lindsay R.S., Seckl J.R. Dysfunction of placental glucocorticoid barrier: link between fetal environment and adult hypertension? Lancet 341: 355, 1993.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  105. 105.
    Benediktsson R., Lindsay R.S., Noble J., Seckl J.R., Edwards C.R.W. Glucocorticoid exposure in utero: new model for adult hypertension. Lancet 341: 339, 1993.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  106. 106.
    Morris D.J., Semafuko W.E.B., Latif S.A., Vogel B., Grimes C.A., Sheff M.F. Detection of glycyrrhetinic acid-like factors (GALFs) in human urine. Hypertension 20: 356, 1992.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  107. 107.
    Walker B.R., Agarwal I., Stewart P.M., Padfield P.L., Edwards C.R.W. Endogenous inhibitors of 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in hypertension. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 80: 529, 1995.PubMedGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Italian Society of Endocrinology (SIE) 1995

Authors and Affiliations

  • M. Shimojo
    • 1
  • Paul M. Stewart
    • 1
  1. 1.Department of MedicineUniversity of Birmingham, Queen Elizabeth HospitalEdgbaston, BirminghamEngland

Personalised recommendations