Tolerance of ambiguity: A review of the concept, its measurement and applications
- 3.1k Downloads
- 150 Citations
Abstract
This paper reviews the scattered and diffuse literature on the tolerance of ambiguity construct (AT). The work by Frenkel-Brunswik (1948) is considered in some detail to help explain the origin of the concept as well as its diffusion to many areas of psychology. Second, thirty years of correlational research, which looks at the studies correlating AT measures with a variety of psychological variables, are reviewed. Third, evidence for the differential distribution of AT among particular groups is reviewed. Fourth, the psychometric properties of the various self-report AT measures are considered in some detail. The two final sections look at organizational and cultural correlates of AT (the areas currently most interested in the AT concept). The conclusion attempts to explain varying patterns of interest in the AT construct and its current status.
Keywords
Current Psychology Uncertainty Avoidance Psychological Report Role Ambiguity Ambiguous SituationPreview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
- Anderson, S., & Schwartz, A. (1992). Intolerance of ambiguity and depression.Social Cognition, 10, 271–298.Google Scholar
- Ashford, S., & Cummings, L. (1985). Proactive feedback seeking: The instrumental use of the information environment.Journal of Occupational Psychology, 58, 67–97.Google Scholar
- Beer, J. (1989). Learning effects while passively viewing the necker.Perceptual and Motor Skills, 69, 1391–1394.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Bennett, N., Herold, D., & Ashford, S. (1990). The effects of tolerance for ambiguity on feedback-seeking behavior.Journal of Occupational Psychology, 63, 343–348.Google Scholar
- Bhushan, L. (1970). Leadership preference as a function of authoritarianism and intolerance of ambiguity.Psychologia, 13, 217–222.Google Scholar
- Bhushan, L., & Amal, S. (1986). A situational test of intolerance ambiguity.Psychologia, 29, 254–261.Google Scholar
- Block, J., & Block, J. (1950). Intolerance of ambiguity. and ethnocentrism.Journal of Personality, 19, 303–311.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Bochner, S. (1965). Defining intolerance of ambiguity.Psychological Record, 15, 393–400.Google Scholar
- Bordin, E. (1955). Ambiguity as a therapeutic variable.Journal of Consulting Psychology, 19, 9–15.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Budner, S. (1962). Intolerance of ambiguity as a personality variable.Journal of Personality, 30, 29–59.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Chabassol, D., & Thomas, D. (1975). Needs for structure, tolerance of ambiguity and dogmatism in adolescents.Psychological Reports, 37, 507–510.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Crandall, J. (1967). Effect of need for approval and intolerance of ambiguity upon stimulus preference.Journal of Personality, 35: 67–83.Google Scholar
- Curley, S., Yates, J., & Abrams, R. (1986). Psychological sources of ambiguity avoidance.Organizational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes, 38, 230–256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Davids, A. (1955). Some personality and intellectual correlates of intolerance of ambiguity.Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 43: 415–420.Google Scholar
- Dollinger, M. (1983). Use of Budner’s intolerance of ambiguity measure for entrepreneurial research.Psychological Reports, 53, 1019–1021.Google Scholar
- Draguns, S. & Multari, G. (1961). Recognition of perceptual ambiguous stimuli in grade school children.Child Development, 32, 541–555.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Ebeling, K., & Spear, P. (1980). Preference and performance on two tasks of varying ambiguity as a function of ambiguity tolerance.Australian Journal of Psychology, 32, 127–133.Google Scholar
- Ehrlich, D. (1957). Expressed confidence level uncertainty about subsequent information and “intolerance of ambiguity.” Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Minnesota.Google Scholar
- Ehrlich, D. (1965). “Intolerance of Ambiguity.” Walk’s A Scale: Historical comment.Psychological Reports, 17, 591–594.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Eysenck, H. (1954).The psychology of politics. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
- Feather, N. (1964). Acceptance and rejection of statements in relation to attitude strength, critical ability and intolerance of inconsistency.Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 69, 127–136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Feather, N. (1967). An expectancy-value model of information-seeking behaviour.Psychological Review, 74, 342–360.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Feather, N. (1969). Preference for information in relation to consistency, novelty, intolerance of ambiguity and dogmatism.Australian Journal of Psychology, 31, 235–249.Google Scholar
- Foxman, P. (1976). Tolerance for ambiguity and self-actualizing.Journal of Personality Assessment, 40, 67–72.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Frenkel-Brunswik, E. (1948). Intolerance of ambiguity as an emotional perceptual personality variable.Journal of Personality, 18, 108–143.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Frenkel-Brunswik, E. (1949). Tolerance towards ambiguity as a personality variable.American Psychologist, 3, 268.Google Scholar
- Frenkel-Brunswik, E. (1951). Personality theory and perception. In R. Blake & G. Ramsey (Eds.),Perception: An approach to personality. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
- Frone, M. (1990). Intolerance of ambiguity as a moderator of the occupational role stress-strain relationship.Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 11, 309–320.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Furnham, A. (1990).The Protestant work ethic. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
- Furnham, A. (1994). A content, correlational and factor analytic study of four tolerance of ambiguity questionnaires.Personality and Individual Differences, 16, 403–410.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Furnham, A., & Gunter, B. (1993).Corporate assessment. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
- Gellere, G., Faden, R., & Levine, D. (1990). Tolerance for ambiguity among medical students.Social Science and Medicine, 31, 619–629.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Glover, J., Romero, P., & Petersen, C. (1978). Effects of a simulation game upon tolerance for ambiguity, dogmatism and risk taking.Journal of Social Psychology, 105, 291–296.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Hamilton, V. (1957). Perceptual and personality dynamics in reactions to ambiguity.British Journal of Psychology, 48, 200–215.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Harlow, D. (1973). Professional employees’ preference for upward mobility.Journal of Applied Psychology, 57, 137–141.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Harrington, D., Block, J., & Block, J. (1978). Intolerance of ambiguity in preschool children.Developmental Psychology, 14, 243–256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Heilbrun, A. (1972). Tolerance for ambiguity in late adolescent males.Developmental Psychology, 7, 288–294.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Hofstede, G. (1984).Cultures’ consequences. Beverly Hills, California: Sage.Google Scholar
- Jaensch, E. (1938).Der Gegentypus. Leipzig. Barth.Google Scholar
- Keenan, J., & McBain, G. (1979). Effects of Type A behaviour, intolerance of ambiguity, stress and work-related outcomes and locus of control on the relationship between roles.Journal of Occupational Psychology, 52, 277–285.Google Scholar
- Kelman, H., & Barclay, J. (1963). The specificity of intolerance of ambiguity measures.Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 58, 300–304.Google Scholar
- Kenny, D., & Ginsberg, R. (1985). The specificity of intolerance of ambiguity measures.Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 56, 300–304.Google Scholar
- Kirton, M. (1981). A reanalysis of two scales of tolerance of ambiguity.Journal of Personality Assessment, 45, 407–415.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Kreitler, S., Maguen, T., & Kreitler, H. (1975). The three faces of intolerance of ambiguity.Archiv für Psychologie, 127, 238–250.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Lysonski, S., & Andrews, J. (1990). Effect of moderating variables on product managers’ behaviour.Psychological Reports, 66, 295–306.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- MacDonald, A. (1970). Revised scale for ambiguity tolerance: Reliability and validity.Psychological Reports, 26, 791–798.Google Scholar
- Martin, B. (1953). Intolerance of ambiguity in interpersonal and perceptual behaviour.Journal of Personality, 22, 494–503.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Matterson, M., & Ivancevich, J. (1987).Controlling working stress: Effective human resource and management strategies. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
- McCandless, B., & Holloway, H. (1955). Race prejudice and intolerance of ambiguity in children.Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 53, 692–693.Google Scholar
- McClelland, D. (1961).The achieving society. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
- McPherson, K. (1983). Opinion-related information seeking: Personal and situational variables.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 9, 116–124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Million, T. (1957) Authoritarianism, intolerance of ambiguity and rigidity under ego- and task-involving conditions.Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 99, 29–33.Google Scholar
- Muss, R. (1959). A comparison of “high causally” and “low causally” oriented sixth grade children in respect to a perceptual “intolerance of ambiguity tests.”Child Development, 31, 521–536.Google Scholar
- Norton, R. (1975). Measurement of ambiguity tolerance.Journal of Personality Assessment, 39, 607–619.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Nutt, P. (1993). Flexible decision styles and the choices of top executives.Journal of Management Studies, 30, 695–721.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- O’Connor, P. (1952). Ethnocentrism, “intolerance of ambiguity” and abstract reasoning ability.Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 47, 526–530.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Pawlicki, R., & Almquist, C. (1973). Authoritarianism, locus of control and tolerance of ambiguity as reflected in membership and non-membership in a women’s liberation group.Psychological Reports, 32, 1331–1337.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Raphael, D., & Chasen, M. (1980). Intolerance of ambiguity and life status during early adulthood.Psychological Reports, 47, 388–390.Google Scholar
- Raphael, D., Moss, S., & Cross, W. (1978). Budner’s intolerance of ambiguity: A note concerning intelligence.Psychological Reports, 43, 624–626.Google Scholar
- Raphael, D., & Xelowski, H. (1981). Adolescents’ anxiety and intolerance of ambiguity scores as predictors of dropping out of a study.Psychological Reports, 48, 229–230.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Rokeach, M. (1951). Prejudice, concreteness of thinking and reification of thinking.Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 46, 83–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Rosenblum, S. (1957). Ethnocentrism and intolerance of ambiguity in mentally retarded children.Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 52: 567–573.Google Scholar
- Roskin, R., & Margerison, C. (1983). The effectiveness of some measures of managerial effectiveness.Human Relations, 36, 865–882.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Rotter, N. & O’Connell, A. (1982). The relationships among sex-role orientation, cognitive complexity and tolerance for ambiguity.Sex Roles, 8, 1209–1220.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Rydell, S. (1966). Tolerance of ambiguity and semantic differential ratings.Psychological Reports, 19, 1303–1312.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Rydell, S., & Rosen, E. (1966). Measurement and some correlates of need cognition.Psychological Reports, 19, 139–165.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Saunders, D. (1955, October).Some preliminary interpretive material (for the PRI Research Memorandum SS). Educational Testing Service.Google Scholar
- Schere, J. (1982). Tolerance of ambiguity as a discriminating variable between entrepreneurs and managers. InProceedings, pp. 404–407. New York: Academy of Management.Google Scholar
- Shaffer, D., & Hendrick, C. (1974). Dogmatism and tolerance for ambiguity as determinants of differential reliance to cognitive inconsistency.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 29, 601–608.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Shaffer, D., Hendrick, C., Regula, C., & Freconna, J. (1973). Interactive effects of ambiguity tolerance and task effort of dissonance reduction.Journal of Personality, 41, 224–233.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Shavit, H. (1975). Personality adjustment as a function of interaction between locus of evaluation and tolerance of ambiguity.Psychological Reports, 37, 1204–1206.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Sidanuis, J. (1978). Intolerance of ambiguity and socio-politico ideology: A multidimensional analysis.European Journal of Social Psychology, 8, 215–235.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Smock, C. (1955). The influence of stress on “intolerance of ambiguity.”Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 50, 177–182.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Tatzel, M. (1980). Tolerance for ambiguity in adult college students.Psychological Reports, 47, 377–378.Google Scholar
- Tegano, D. (1990). Relationship of tolerance of ambiguity and playfulness to creativity.Psychological Reports, 66, 1047–1056.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Tsui, J. (1993). Tolerance for ambiguity, uncertainty audit qualifications and bankers’ perceptions.Psychological Reports, 72, 915.Google Scholar