Abstract
Acid rain has been an issue of great concern in North America and Europe during the past several decades. However, due to the passage of a number of recent regulations, most notably the Clean Air Act in the United States in 1990, there is an emerging perception that the problem in these Western nations is nearing solution. The situation in the developing world, particularly in Asia, is much bleaker.
Given the policies of many Asian nations to achieve levels of development comparable with the industrialized world—which necessitate a significant expansion of energy consumption (most derived from indigenous coal reserves)—the potential for the formation of, and damage from, acid deposition in these developing countries is very high.
This article delineates and assesses the emissions patterns, meteorology, physical geology, and biological and cultural resources present in various Asian nations. Based on this analysis and the risk factors to acidification, it is concluded that a number of areas in Asia are currently vulnerable to acid rain. These regions include Japan, North and South Korea, southern China, and the mountainous portions of Southeast Asia and southwestern India. Furthermore, with accelerated development (and its attendant increase in energy use and production of emissions of acid deposition precursors) in many nations of Asia, it is likely that other regions will also be affected by acidification in the near future.
Based on the results of this overview, it is clear that acid deposition has significant potential to impact the Asian region. However, empirical evidence is urgently needed to confirm this and to provide early warning of increases in the magnitude and spread of acid deposition and its effects throughout this part of the world.
Key words
Acid rain Asia Ecosystem impacts Emission scenarios Acidification vulnerability Control optionsPreview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
Literature Cited
- Asian Development Bank. 1987. Energy indicators of major developing country members of ADB. Asian Development Bank, Manila, Philippines.Google Scholar
- Asian Development Bank. 1989. Energy indicators of major developing member countries of ADB. Asian Development Bank, Manila, Philippines.Google Scholar
- Ayers, G. P. 1990. Overview of wet deposition monitoring activities in the Asian region relevant to the IGAC DEBITS activity. Proceedings of the second annual workshop on acid rain in Asia, 19–22 November 1990. Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand (in press).Google Scholar
- Baker, H. G., K. S. Bawa, G. W. Frankie, and P. A. Opler. 1983. Reproductive biology of plants in tropical forests,in F. B. Golley (ed.), Ecosystems of the world, 14A: Tropical rain forest ecosystems. Elsevier, New York.Google Scholar
- Bangladesh Environmental Newsletter. 1990. Air quality monitoring. 1:1, 7 April-June.Google Scholar
- Chatfield, R. B., and P. J. Crutzen. 1984. Sulfur dioxide in remote oceanic air: Cloud transport of reactive precursors.Journal of Geophysical Research 89:7111–7132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Chuying, C. 1985. Effects of acid rain onPinus massoniana forests in the region of Chongqing. Presentation to the China-U.S. workshop on air pollution ecological effects. Nanjing, China.Google Scholar
- East-West Center. 1986. Asia-Pacific report. East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii.Google Scholar
- Encyclopedia Britannica. 1979. Asia. W. Benton Pub., Chicago, Illinois.Google Scholar
- Foell, W. K., and C. W. Green. 1990. Acid rain in Asia: An economic, energy and emissions overview. Proceedings of the second annual workshop on acid rain in Asia, 19–22 November 1990. Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand (in press).Google Scholar
- Galloway, J. N. 1988. Effects of acid deposition on tropical aquatic ecosystems,in H. Rodhe and R. Herrera (eds.), Acidification in tropical countries. SCOPE 36, Wiley and Sons, Chichester, UK.Google Scholar
- Galloway, J. N., D. Zhao, J. Xiong, and G. E. Likens. 1987. Acid rain: China, United States and a remote area.Science 236:1559–1562.Google Scholar
- Gauri, L. K., and G. C. Holdren, Jr. 1981. Pollutant effects on stone monuments.Environmental Science and Technology 15:386–390.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Harte, J. 1983. An investigation of acid precipitation in Qinghai Province, China.Atmospheric Environment 17:403–408.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Hong, M. S. 1989. Energy/acid rain overview in Korea. Presented at first annual workshop on acid rain in Asia, 13–17 November 1989. Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand.Google Scholar
- IEA (International Energy Agency). 1984. Assessment of environmental strategy for coal use, Vol. II. Report of the Pacific region committee on environmental strategies, Coal Industry Advisory Board, International Energy Agency, London, UK.Google Scholar
- IEA (International Energy Agency). 1989. World energy statistics and balances, 1971–1987. International Energy Agency, Paris, France.Google Scholar
- Institute of Energy Economics, Japan. 1989. Reference for meeting on global environmental problems. 23 September 1989, Japan.Google Scholar
- JEA (Japan Environment Agency). 1990. Acid precipitation in Japan. Tokyo, Japan.Google Scholar
- Khemani, L. T., G. A. Momin, P. S. Prakasa Rao, P. D. Safai, G. Singh, R. N. Chatterjee, and P. Prakash. 1989a. Long-term effects of pollutants on pH of rain water in north India.Atmospheric Environment 23:753–756.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Khemani, L. T., G. A. Momin, P. S. Prakasa Rao, P. D. Safai, G. Singh, and R. K. Kapoor. 1989b. Spread of acid rain over India.Atmospheric Environment 23:757–762.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- MacKinnon, J., and K. MacKinnon. 1986. Review of the protected areas system in the Indo-Malayan realm. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.Google Scholar
- McCormick, J. 1985. Acid earth. Earthscan Pub., International Institute for Environment and Development, London, UK.Google Scholar
- McDowell, W. H. 1988. Potential effects of acid deposition on tropical terrestrial ecosystems,in H. Rodhe and R. Herrera (eds.), Acidification in tropical countries. SCOPE 36, Wiley and Sons, Chichester, UK, pp. 117–139.Google Scholar
- Rodhe, H., E. Cowling, I. E. Galbally, J. N. Galloway, and R. Herrera. 1988. Acidification and regional air pollution in the tropics,in H. Rodhe and R. Herrera (eds.), Acidification in tropical countries. SCOPE 36, Wiley and Sons, Chichester, UK, pp. 3–39.Google Scholar
- Sahabat Alam Malaysia. 1983. The state of the Malaysian environment 1983–1984. SAM, Penang, Malaysia. (Original not seen: cited from McCormick, J. 1985. Acid earth. Earthscan Pub., International Institute for Environment and Development, London, UK.)Google Scholar
- Schofield, C. L., J. N. Galloway, and G. R. Hendry. 1985. Surface water chemistry in the ILWAS Basins.Water, Air and Soil Pollution 26:403–425.Google Scholar
- Swinbanks, D. 1989. China blamed for high pH.Nature 340:671.Google Scholar
- United Nations. 1988. 1986 energy statistics yearbook. United Nations, New York.Google Scholar
- Varma, G. S. 1989a. Background trends of pH of precipitation over India.Atmospheric Environment 23:747–751.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Varma, G. S. 1989b. Impact of soil-derived aerosols on precipitation acidity in India.Atmospheric Environment 23:2723–2728.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Wellburn, A. 1988. Air pollution and acid rain: The biological impact. Longman Scientific and Technical, Harlow, Essex, UK.Google Scholar
- Wexing, W., and S. Quan. 1990. Current status of acid precipitation in China. Presented at NAPAP 1990 international conference on acidic deposition: State of science and technology, 11–16 February 1990, Hilton Head, South Carolina.Google Scholar
- World Resources Institute. 1988. World resources 1988–1989. Basic Books, New York.Google Scholar
- Zhao, D., and B. Sun. 1986. Air pollution and acid rain in China.Ambio 15:2–5.Google Scholar
- Zhao, D., and J. Xiong. 1988. Acidification in southwestern China,in H. Rodhe and R. Herrera (eds.), Acidification in tropical countries. SCOPE 36, Wiley and Sons, Chichester, UK, pp. 317–346.Google Scholar