Abstract
Differences among junior managers in their perceptions of various types of interactions with senior managers and levels of self-efficacy in initiating interactions were investigated. Study variables were determined following preliminary focus group interviews. These variables were subjected to a multivariate analysis of covariance (MANACOVA) to assess differences among the various racial, ethnic, and gender groups. Data were derived from a 53% response rate to a survey of 3106 junior managers in a Fortune 500 company. Subjects included Asian men (n = 29), Asian women (n = 21), Black men (n = 94), Black women (n = 84), Hispanic men (n = 28), Hispanic women (n = 18), White men (n = 708), and White women (n = 647). Results reveal that women perceived having less access to career-related interactions and to informal interactions with senior managers. Women also reported lower levels of self-efficacy in their personal skills and abilities in informal social activities. Black managers presented higher levels of self-efficacy related to initiating career-related interactions than White managers and Asian managers. Asian managers reported lower levels of self-efficacy related to initiating informal interactions with senior managers than Black, Hispanic, and White managers. Findings suggest that gender has a stronger influence than race or ethnicity on the nature of interactions with senior managers within this organization.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alderfer, C. P., Alderfer, C. J., Tucker, L., & Tucker, R. (1980). Diagnosing race relations in management.Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 27,135–166.
Brass, D. J. (1985). Men's and women's networks: A study of interaction patterns and influence in an organization.Academy of Management, 28, 327–343.
Burke, R. J. (1984). Mentors in organizations.Group and Organization Studies, 9, 353–372.
Chao, G. T., & Gardner, P. D. (1992). Formal and informal mentorships: A comparison of mentoring functions and contrast with nonmentored counterparts.Personnel Psychology, 45, 619–636.
Cox, T. H., & Nkomo, S. M. (1990). Invisible men and women: A status report on race as a variable in organizational research.Journal of Organizational Behavior, 11, 419–431.
Dalton, G. W. (1989). Developmental views of careers in organizations. In M. B. Arthur, D. T. Hall, & B. S. Lawrence (Eds.),Handbook of career theory. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Dreher, G. F., & Ash, A. A. (1990). A comparative study of mentoring among men and women in managerial, professional, and technical positions.Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 539–546.
Fagenson, E. A. (1989). The mentor advantage: perceived career/job experiences of protege versus non-proteges.Journal of Organizational Behavior, 10, 309–320.
Fernandez, J. P. (1981).Racism and sexism in corporate life: Changing values in American business. Lexington, MA: Heath.
Greenhaus, J. H., Parasuraman, S. & Wormley, W. M. (1990). Effects of race on organizational experiences, job performance evaluations and career outcomes.Academy of Management Journal, 33, 64–86.
Ibarra, H. (1993). Personal networks of women and minorities in management: A conceptual framework.Academy of Management Review, 18, 56–87.
Ilgen, D. R., & Youtz, M. A. (1986). Factors affecting the evaluation and development of minorities in organizations. In K. Rowland & G. Ferris (Eds.),Research in personnel and human resource management: A research annual. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
James, K., & Khoo, G. (1991). Identity-related influences on the success of minority workers in primarily nonminority organizations.Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 13, 169–192.
Kalton, G. (1991).Introduction to survey sampling. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publication.
Kirmeyer, S., & Lin, T. (1987). Social support: Its relationship to observed communication with peers and superiors.Academy of Management Journal, 30, 138–151.
Konrad, A. M., Winter, S., & Gutek, B. A. (1992). Diversity in work group sex composition: Implications for majority and minority members.Research in the Sociology of Organizations, 10, 115–140.
Kram, K. (1985).Mentoring at work: Developmental relationships in organizational life. Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman.
Milliken, G. A., & Johnson, D. E. (1992).Analysis of messy data: Analysis of covariance. Kansas State University: Department of Statistics.
Morrison, A. M., & Von Glinow, M. A. (1990). Women and minorities in management.American Psychologist, 45, 200–208.
Nkomo, S. (1988). Race and sex: The forgotten case of the Black female manager. In S. Rose & L. Larwood (Eds.),Women's careers: Pathways and pitfalls. New York: Praeger.
Ohlott, P. J., Ruderman, M. N., & McCauley, C. D. (1994). Gender differences in managers' developmental job experiences.Academy of Management Journal, 38, 46–67.
Pfeffer, J. (1983). Organizational demography.Research in Organizational Behavior, 5, 299–357.
Ragins, B. R. (1989). Barriers to mentoring: The female manager's dilemma.Human Relations, 42, 1–22.
Ragins, B. R., & Cotton, J. L. (1991). Easier said than done: Gender differences in perceived barriers to gaining a mentor.Academy of Management Journal, 34, 939–951.
Ragins, B. R., & Sundstrom, E. (1989). Gender and power in organizations: A longitudinal perspective.Psychological Bulletin, 105, 51–88.
Schmidt, N. W., & Klimoski, R. J. (1991).Research methods in human resources management. Cincinnati, OH: South-Western Publishing Co.
Shore, T. H. (1992). Subtle gender bias in the assessment of management potential.Sex Roles, 27, 499–514.
Thomas, D. A. (1989). Mentoring and irrationality: The role of racial taboos.Human Resource Management, 28, 279–290.
Thomas, D. A. (1990). The impact of race on managers' experiences of developmental relationships (mentoring and sponsorship): An intra-organizational study.Journal of Organizational Behavior, 11, 479–492.
Thomas, D. A., & Alderfer, C. P. (1989). The influence of race on career dynamic theory and research on minority career experiences. In M. B. Arthur, D. T. Hall, & B. S. Lawrence (Eds.),Handbook of career theory. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Turban, D. B., & Dougherty, T. W. (1994). Role of protege personality in receipt of mentoring and career success.Academy of Management Journal, 37, 688–702.
Turban, D. B., & Jones, A. (1988). Supervisor-subordinate similarity; Types, effects, and mechanisms.Journal of Applied Psychology, 73, 228–234.
Tsui, A. S., & O'Reilly, C. A. (1989). Beyond simple demographic effects: The importance of relational demography in superior-subordinate dyads.Academy of Management Journal, 4, 402–423.
U.S. Commission on Civil Rights. (1992).Civil rights issues facing Asian Americans in the 1990s. Washington, DC: U.S. Commission on Civil Rights.
U.S. Department of Labor. (1991).A report on the glass ceiling. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Whitely, W., Dougherty, T. W., & Dreher, G. F. (1991). Relationship of career mentoring and socioeconomic origin to managers' and professionals' early career progress.Academy of Management Journal, 34, 331–351.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Additional information
This research was funded by a Susquehanna University Research Grant. The authors would like to thank Stacy Ross for her assistance with data collection and Richard K. Caputo, Paul Dion, and two anonymous reviewers for their comments on an earlier version of this article.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Cianni, M., Romberger, B. Interactions with senior managers: Perceived differences by race/ethnicity and by gender. Sex Roles 32, 353–373 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01544602
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01544602