Acta Neurochirurgica

, Volume 75, Issue 1–4, pp 60–71 | Cite as

Hypothalamic control of GH secretion: Pathophysiology and clinical implications

  • H. -J. Quabbe
Article

Summary

GH is secreted episodically. Its pattern is regulated by the interplay of a releasing and a release-inhibiting hormone of hypothalamic origin.

Modulation occurs by metabolic factors (glucose, free fatty acids, ketone bodies, amino acids). Altered GH secretion has been observed in states of metabolic derangement such as diabetes mellitus, malnutrition and obesity.

Further modulation occurs by extrahypothalamic CNS structures. In man—but not in animals, including subhuman primates—sleep has an important effect on GH secretion. A defective GH secretory pattern has been found to occur in several states of sleep disturbance, such as sleep deprivation, narcolepsy, severe psychosocial derangement, the apallic syndrome. Other CNS influences on GH secretion are related to stress, emotional changes and psychiatric disturbances.

The exact mechanisms by which most of these influences are relayed to the GH secretory apparatus of the hypothalamus remain yet to be investigated.

Keywords

Growth hormone CNS control emotions metabolism 
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. 1.
    Akert, K., Koella, W. P., Hess, Jr., R., Sleep produced by electrical stimulation of the thalamus. Am. J. Physiol.168 (1952), 260–267.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  2. 2.
    Alford, P., Baker, H. W. G., Burger, H. G., The secretion rate of human growth hormone. I. Daily secretion rates, effect of posture and sleep. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.37 (1973), 515–520.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  3. 3.
    Alford, F. P., Baker, H. W. G., Burger, H. G., de Kretser, D. M., Hudson, B., Johns, M. W., Masterton, J. P., Patel, Y. C., Rennie, G. C., Temporal patterns of integrated plasma hormone levels during sleep and wakefulness. I. Thyroid stimulating hormone, growth hormone and cortisol. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.37 (1973), 841–847.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  4. 4.
    Arrenbrecht, S., Specific binding of growth hormone to thymocytes. Nature252 (1974), 255–257.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  5. 5.
    Bazzarre, T. L., Johanson, A. J., Huseman, C. A., Varma, M. M., Blizzard, R. M., Human growth hormone changes with age. In: Growth Hormone and Related Peptides (Pecile, A., Müller, E. E., eds.), pp. 261–270. Excerpta Medica Internat. Congress Series No. 381, Amsterdam.Google Scholar
  6. 6.
    Bensasson, M., Rosselin, G., Tschobroutsky, G., Freychet, P., Assan, R., Etude de la glycémie et du taux plasmatique des acides gras libres, de l'insuline et det l'hormone de croissance, chez l'obèse, diabétique ou non, à jeun au cours d'un nycthémère. C. R. Acad. Sc. Paris268 (1969), 1207–1210.Google Scholar
  7. 7.
    Besset, A., Billiard, M., Crastes de Paulet, A., Passouant, P., Sécrétion de GH et de cortisol en rapport avec les états de vigilance au cours du nycthémère chez 10 narcoleptiques. Rev. d'E.E.G. Neurophysiol.6 (1976), 17–22.Google Scholar
  8. 8.
    Bivens, C. H., Lebovitz, H. E., Feldman, J. M., Inhibition of hypoglycemia-induced growth hormone secretion by the serotonin antagonists cycproheptadine and methysergide. New Engl. J. Med.289 (1973), 236–239.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  9. 9.
    Blackard, W. G., Heidingsfelder, S. A., Adrenergic receptor control mechanism for growth hormone secretion. J. Clin. Invest.47 (1968), 1407–1414.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  10. 10.
    Borer, K. T., Kelch, R. P., Peugh, J., Huseman, C., Increased serum growth hormone and somatic growth in adult hamsters with hippocampal transsections. Neuroendocrinology29 (1979), 22–33.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  11. 11.
    Borer, K. T., Kelch, R. P., White, M. P., Dolson, L., Kuhns, L. R., The role of the septal area in the neuroendocrine control of growth in the adult golden hamster. Neuroendocrinology23 (1977), 133–150.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  12. 12.
    Bowden, D. M., German, D. C., Poynter, W. D., An autoradiographic, semistereotaxic mapping of major projections from locus coeruleus and adjacent nuclei in macaca mulatta. Brain Res.145 (1978), 257–276.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  13. 13.
    Brown, W. A., Heninger, G., Cortisol, growth hormone, free fatty acids, and experimentally evoked affective arousal. Am. J. Psychiatry132 (1975), 1172–1176.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  14. 14.
    Brown, W. A., Henninger, G., Stress-induced growth hormone release: Psychologic and physiologic correlates. Psychosom. Med.38 (1976), 145–147.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  15. 15.
    Brown, G. M., Seggie, J. A., Chambers, J. W., Ettigi, P. G., Psychoendocrinology and growth hormone: A review. Psychoneuroendocrinology3 (1978), 131–153.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  16. 16.
    Carlson, H. E., Gillin, J. G., Gorden, P., Snyder, F., Absence of sleep-related growth hormone peaks in aged normal subjects and in acromegaly. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.34 (1972), 1102–1105.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  17. 17.
    Chihara, K., Kato, Y., Maeda, K., Matsukura, S., Imura, H., Suppression by cyproheptadine of human growth hormone and cortisol secretion during sleep. J. Clin. Invest.57 (1976), 1393–1402.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  18. 18.
    Clemente, C. D., Sterman, M. B., Cortical synchronization and sleep patterns in acute restrained and chronic behaving cats induced by basal forebrain stimulation. EEG Clin. Neurophysiol. Suppl.24 (1963), 172–187.Google Scholar
  19. 19.
    Collu, R., Fraschini, F., Visconti, P., Martini, L., Adrenergic and serotoninergic control of growth hormone secretion in adult male rats. Endocrinology90 (1972), 1231–1237.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  20. 20.
    Culebras, A., Podolsky, S., Leopold, N. A., Absence of sleep-related growth hormone elevations in myotonic dystrophy. Neurology27 (1977), 165–167.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  21. 21.
    Curtis, G. C., Psychosomatics and chronobiology: Possible implications of neuroendocrine rhythms. Psychosom. Med.34 (1972), 235–256.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  22. 22.
    Curtis, G. C., Nesse, R., Buxton, M., Lippman, D., Plasma growth hormone: Effect of anxiety during flooding in vivo. Am. J. Psychiatry136 (1979), 410–414.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  23. 23.
    Désir, D., Van Cauter, E., Fang, V. S., Martino, E., Jadot, C., Spire, J.-P., Noel, P., Refetoff, S., Copinschi, G., Golstein, J., Effects of “jet lag” on hormonal patterns. I. Procedures, variations in total plasma proteins, and disruption of adrenocorticotropin-cortisol periodicity. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.52 (1981), 628–641.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  24. 24.
    Désir, D., Van Cauter, E., L'Hermite, M., Refetoff, S., Jadot, C., Caufriez, A., Copinschi, G., Robyn, C., Effects of “jet lag” on hormonal patterns. III. Demonstration of an intrinsic circadian rhythmicity in plasma prolactin. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.55 (1982), 849–857.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  25. 25.
    Drejer, J., Hendriksen, C., Nielsen, L. M., Binder, C., Hagen, C., Kehlet, H., Diurnal variations in plasma prolactin, growth hormone, cortisol and blood glucose in labile diabetes mellitus. Clin. Endocrinol.6 (1977), 57–64.Google Scholar
  26. 26.
    Durand, D., Martin, J. B., Brazeau, P., Evidence for a role of α-adrenergic mechanisms in regulation of episodic growth hormone secretion in the rat. Endocrinology100 (1977), 722–728.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  27. 27.
    Eberhart, J. A., Keverne, E. B., Meller, R. E., Social influences on circulating levels of cortisol and prolactin in male talapoin monkeys. Physiol. Behav.30 (1983), 361–369.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  28. 28.
    Ehle, A. L., Mason, J. W., Pennington, L. L., Plasma growth hormone and cortisol changes following limbic stimulation in conscious monkeys. Neuroendocrinology23 (1977), 52–60.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  29. 29.
    Fèvre-Montange, M., Van Cauter, E., Refetoff, S., Désir, D., Tourniaire, J., Copinschi, G., Effects of “jet lag” on hormonal patterns. II. Adaptation of melatonin circadian periodicity. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.52 (1981), 642–649.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  30. 30.
    Finkelstein, J. W., Anders, T. F., Sachar, E. J., Roffwarg, H. P., Hellman, L. D., Behavioral state, sleep stage and growth hormone levels in human infants. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.32 (1971), 368–371.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  31. 31.
    Finkelstein, J. W., Roffwarg, H. P., Boyar, R. M., Kream, J., Hellman, L., Age-related change in the twenty-four-hour spontaneous secretion of growth hormone. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.35 (1972), 665–670.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  32. 32.
    Fritschka, E., Kroll, M. H., Vogel, H.-P., Kroll, M., Quabbe, H.-J., Diurnal variations of growth hormone, prolactin, and cortisol secretion in patients with apallic syndrome. Acta Endocrinol. (Kbh.)96 (1981, Suppl. 240), 72–73 (abstract).Google Scholar
  33. 33.
    Gil-Ad, I., Dickerman, Z., Weizman, R., Weizman, A., Tyano, S., Laron, Z., Abnormal growth hormone responses to LRH and TRH in adolescent schizophrenic boys. Am. J. Psychiatry138 (1981), 357–360.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  34. 34.
    Goldsmith, S. J., Glick, S. M., Rhythmicity of human growth hormone secretion. Mount Sinai J. Med.37 (1970), 501–509.Google Scholar
  35. 35.
    Golstein, J., Van Cauter, E., Désir, D., Noel, P., Spire, J.-P., Refetoff, S., Copinschi, G., Effects of “jet lag” on hormonal patterns. IV. Time shifts increase growth hormone release. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.56 (1983), 433–440.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  36. 36.
    Goodman, H. M., Coiro, V., Induction of sensitivity to the insulin-like action of growth hormone in normal rat adipose tissue. Endocrinology108 (1981), 113–119.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  37. 37.
    Greene, W. A., Conron, G., Schalch, D. S., Schreiner, B. F., Psychologic correlates of growth hormone and adrenal secretory responses of patients undergoing cardiac catheterization. Psychosom. Med.32 (1970), 599–614.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  38. 38.
    Hansen, A. P., Johansen, K., Diurnal patterns of blood glucose, serum free fatty acids, insulin, glucagon and growth hormone in normals and juvenile diabetics. Diabetologia6 (1970), 27–33.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  39. 39.
    Harris, R. J., Haas, L., Septo-optic dysplasia with growth hormone deficiency (De Morsier syndrome). Arch. Dis. Childhood47 (1972), 973–976.Google Scholar
  40. 40.
    Hawkins, R. A., Biebuyck, J. F., Ketone bodies are selectively used by individual brain regions. Science205 (1979), 325–327.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  41. 41.
    Helge, H., Weber, B., Quabbe, H.-J., Growth-hormone release and venepuncture. Lanceti (1969), 204.Google Scholar
  42. 42.
    Heinrichs, I., Illig, R., Hecker, A., Wachstumshormon-konzentration während des ersten tiefen Nachtschlafes (EEG-Stadien D und E) bei 20 Kindern mit normalem Wachstum. Helv. Paediat. Acta26 (1971), 649–664.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  43. 43.
    Hess, W. R., Das Schlafsyndrom als Folge dienzephaler Reizung. Helv. Physiol. Acta2 (1944), 305–344.Google Scholar
  44. 44.
    Higuchi, T., Takahashi, Y., Takahashi, K., Niimi, Y., Miyasita, A., Twenty-four-hour secretory patterns of growth hormone, prolactin, and cortisol in narcolepsy. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.49 (1979), 197–204.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  45. 45.
    Himsworth, R. L., Carmel, P. W., Frantz, A. G., The location of the chemoreceptor controlling growth hormone secretion during hypoglycemia in primates. Endocrinology91 (1972), 217–226.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  46. 46.
    Honda, Y., Takahashi, K., Takahashi, S., Azumi, K., Irie, M., Sakuma, M., Tsushima, T., Shizume, K., Growth hormone secretion during nocturnal sleep in normal subjects. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.29 (1969), 20–29.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  47. 47.
    Howse, P. M., Rayner, P. H. W., Williams, J. W., Rudd, B. T., Bertrande, P. V., Thompson, C. R. S., Jones, L. A., Nyctohemeral secretion of growth hormone in normal children of short stature and in children with hypopituitarism and intrauterine growth retardation. Clin. Endocrinol.6 (1977), 347–359.Google Scholar
  48. 48.
    Hunter, W. M., Rigal, W. M., The diurnal pattern of plasma growth hormone concentration in children and adolescents. J. Endocrin.34 (1966), 147–153.Google Scholar
  49. 49.
    Irie, M., Sakuma, M., Tsushima, T., Shizume, K., Nakao, K., Effect of nicotinic acid administration on plasma growth hormone concentrations. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med.126 (1967), 708–711.Google Scholar
  50. 50.
    Johansen, K., Hansen, A. P., High 24-hour level of serum growth hormone in juvenile diabetics. Brit. Med. J.2 (1969), 356–357.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  51. 51.
    Johansen, K., Hansen, A. P., Diurnal serum growth hormone levels in poorly and well-controlled juvenile diabetics. Diabetes20 (1971), 239–245.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  52. 52.
    Jouvet, M., The role of monoamines and acetylcholinecontaining neurones in the regulation of the sleep-waking cycle. In: Reviews of Physiology, Vol. 64, pp. 166–307. Berlin-Heidelberg-New York: Springer. 1972.Google Scholar
  53. 53.
    Karacan, I., Rosenbloom, A. L., Londono, J. H., Salis, P. J., Thyrnby, J. I., Williams, R. L., The effect of acute fasting on sleep and the sleep-growth hormone response. Psychosomatics14 (1973), 33–37.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  54. 54.
    Karacan, I., Rosenbloom, A. L., Londono, J. H., Williams, R. L., Salis, P. J., Growth hormone levels during morning and afternoon naps. Behav. Neuropsychiat.6 (1975), 67–70.Google Scholar
  55. 55.
    Karacan, I., Rosenbloom, A. L., Williams, R. L., Finley, W. W., Hursch, C. J., Slow wave sleep deprivation in relation to plasma growth hormone concentration. Behav. Neuropsychiat.2 (1971), 11–14.Google Scholar
  56. 56.
    Kjeldsen, H., Hansen, A. P., Lundbaek, K., Twenty-four-hour serum growth hormone levels in maturity-onset diabetics. Diabetes24 (1975), 977–982.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  57. 57.
    Krieger, D. T. (ed.), Endocrine rhythms. New York: Raven Press. 1979.Google Scholar
  58. 58.
    Krieger, I., Mellinger, R. C., Pituitary function in the deprivation syndrome. J. Pediatrics79 (1971), 216–225.Google Scholar
  59. 59.
    Kurokawa, N., Suematsu, H., Tamai, H., Esaki, M., Aoki, H., Ikemi, Y., Effect of emotional stress on human growth hormone secretion. J. Psychosom. Res.21 (1977), 231–235.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  60. 60.
    Laakman, G., Beeinflussung der Hypophysenvorderlappen-Hormonsekretion durch Antidepressiva bei gesunden Probanden, neurotisch und endogen depressiven Patienten. Nervenarzt51 (1980), 725–732.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  61. 61.
    Lipman, R. L., Taylor, A. L., Schenk, S., Mintz, D. H., Inhibition of sleep-related growth hormone release by elevated free fatty acids. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.35 (1972), 592–594.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  62. 62.
    Lovinger, R., Holland, J., Kaplan, S., Grumbach, M., Boryczka, A. T., Shakleford, R., Salmon, J., Reid, I. A., Ganong, W. F., Pharmacological evidence for stimulation of growth hormone secretion by a central noradrenergic system in dogs. Neuroscience1 (1976), 443–450.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  63. 63.
    Lucke, C., Adelman, N., Glick, S. M., The effect of elevated free fatty acids (FFA) on the sleep-induced human growth hormone (hGH) Peak. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.35 (1972), 407–412.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  64. 64.
    Lucke, C., Glick, S. M., Experimental modification of the sleep-induced peak of growth hormone secretion. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.32 (1971), 729–736.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  65. 65.
    Maany, I., Mendels, J., Frazer, A., Brunswick, D., A study of growth hormone release in depression. Neuropsychobiology5 (1979), 282–289.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  66. 66.
    Maeda, K., Kato, V., Ohgo, S., Chihara, K., Yoshimoto, Y., Yamagushi, N., Kuromaru, S., Imura, H., Growth hormone and prolactin release after injection of thyrotropin-releasing hormone in patients with depression. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.40 (1975), 501–505.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  67. 67.
    Magnes, J., Moruzzi, G., Pompeiano, O., Synchronization of the EEG produced by low-frequency electrical stimulation of the region of the solitary tract. Arch. Ital. Biol.99 (1961), 33–67.Google Scholar
  68. 68.
    Makara, G. B., Palkovits, M., Antoni, F. A., Kiss, J. Z., Topography of the somatostatin-immunoreactive fibers to the stalk-median eminence of the rat. Neuroendocrinology37 (1983), 1–8.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  69. 69.
    Malarkey, W. B., Mendell, J. R., Failure of a serotonin inhibitor to effect nocturnal GH and prolactin secretion in patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.43 (1976), 889–892.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  70. 70.
    Martin, B., Plasma growth hormone (GH) response to hypothalamic or extrahypothalamic electrical stimulation. Endocrinology91 (1972), 107–115.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  71. 71.
    Martin, J. B., Durand, D., Gurd, W., Faille, G., Audet, J., Brazeau, P., Neuropharmacological regulation of episodic growth hormone and prolactin secretion in the rat. Endocrinology102 (1978), 106–113.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  72. 72.
    Martin, J. B., Kontor, J., Mead, P., Plasma GH responses to hypothalamic, hippocampal and amygdaloid electrical stimulation: Effects of variation in stimulus parameters and treatment with α-methyl-p-tyrosine (α-MT). Endocrinology20 (1973), 1354–1361.Google Scholar
  73. 73.
    Mason, J. W., “Over-all” hormonal balance as a key to endocrine organization. Psychosom. Med.30 (1968), 791–808.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  74. 74.
    Matussek, N., Neuroendokrinologische Untersuchungen bei depressiven Syndromen. Nervenarzt49 (1978), 569–575.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  75. 75.
    Meistas, M. T., Foster, G. V., Margolis, S., Kowarski, A. A., Integrated concentrations of growth hormone, insulin, C-peptide and prolactin in human obesity. Metabolism31 (1982), 1224–1228.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  76. 76.
    Mendelson, W. B., Jacobs, L. S., Reichman, J. D., Othmer, E., Cryer, P. E., Trivedi, B., Daughaday, W. H., Methysergide. Suppression of sleep-related prolactin secretion and enhancement of sleep-related growth hormone secretion. J. Clin. Invest.56 (1975), 690–697.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  77. 77.
    Merimee, T. J., Pulkkinen, A. J., Burton, C. E., Diet-induced alterations of hGH secretion in man. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.42 (1976), 931–937.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  78. 78.
    Mims, R. B., Lopez, R. J., Nocturnal growth hormone secretion in acromegaly and obesity without electroencephalographic monitoring. J. Natl. Med. Assoc.68 (1976), 206–210.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  79. 79.
    Mioduszewski, R., Critchlow, V., Forebrain structures which mediate the effects of stress on prolactin and growth hormone secretion in the rat. Endocrinology110 (1982), 1972–1976.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  80. 80.
    Miyabo, S., Asato, T., Mizushima, N., Prolactin and growth hormone responses to psychological stress in normal and neurotic subjects. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.44 (1977), 947–951.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  81. 81.
    Miyabo, S., Hisada, T., Asato, T., Mizushima, N., Ueno, K., Growth hormone and cortisol responses to psychological stress: Comparison of normal and neurotic subjects. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.42 (1976), 1158–1162.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  82. 82.
    Molnar, G. D., Taylor, W. F., Langworthy, A., Fatourechi, V., Diurnal growth hormone and glucose abnormalities in unstable diabetics: Studies of ambulatory-fed subjects during continous blood glucose analysis. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.34 (1972), 837–846.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  83. 83.
    Moruzzi, G., The sleep-waking cycle. In: Reviews of Physiology, Vol. 64, pp. 1–165. Berlin-Heidelberg-New York: Springer. 1972.Google Scholar
  84. 84.
    Moruzzi, G., Magoun, H. W., Brain stem reticular formation and activation of the EEG. EEG Clin. Neurophysiol.1 (1949), 455–473.Google Scholar
  85. 85.
    Müller, E. E., Dal Pra, P., Pecile, A., Influence of brain neurohumors injected into the lateral ventricle of the rat on growth hormone release. Endocrinology83 (1968), 893–896.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  86. 86.
    Murri, L., Cerone, G., Muratorio, A., Isidori, A., Rotolo, A., Compartamento dell'ormone somatotropo durante il sonno in schizofrenici chronici. Riv. Pat. Nerv. Ment.94 (1973), 391–400.Google Scholar
  87. 87.
    Nauta, W. J. H., Haymaker, W., Hypothalamic nuclei and fiber connections. In: The Hypothalamus (Haymaker, W., Anderson, E., Nauta, W. J. H., eds.), pp. 136–209. Springfield, Ill.: Ch.C Thomas. 1969.Google Scholar
  88. 88.
    Nocke-Fink, L., von Burgsdorf, H. H., Wassmann, H., Breuer, H., Growth hormone and cortisol in plasma of patients with traumatic apallic syndrome. Acta Endocrinol. (Kbh.)87 (1978, Suppl. 215), p. 12 (abstract).Google Scholar
  89. 89.
    Oomura, Y., Significance of glucose, insulin, and free fatty acid on the hypothalamic feeding and satiety neurones. In: Hunger: Basic Mechanisms and Clinical Implications (Novin, D., Wyrwicka, W., Bray, G., eds.), p. 145. New York: Raven Press. 1976.Google Scholar
  90. 90.
    Othmer, E., Mendelson, W. B., Levine, W. R., Malarkey, W. B., Daughaday, W. H., Sleep-related growth hormone secretion and morning naps. Steroids Lipids Res.5 (1974), 380–386.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  91. 91.
    Palkowits, M., Léranth, C., Zaborszky, L., Brownstein, M. J., Electron microscopic evidence of direct neuronal connections from the lower brain stem to the median eminence. Brain Res.136 (1977), 339–344.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  92. 92.
    Pandian, M. R., Talwar, G. P., Effect of growth hormone on the metabolism of thymus and on the immune response against sheep erythrocytes. J. exper. Med.134 (1971), 1095–1113.Google Scholar
  93. 93.
    Parker, D. C., Rossman, L. G., Human growth hormone release in sleep: Nonsuppression by acute hyperglycemia. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.32 (1971), 65–69.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  94. 94.
    Parker, D. C., Rossman, L. G., Sleep release of human growth hormone in treated juvenile diabetics. Diabetes20 (1971), 691–695.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  95. 95.
    Parker, D. C., Rossman, L. G., Sleep-wake cycle and human growth hormone, prolactin, and luteinizing hormone. In: Advances in Human Growth Hormone Research, DHEW Publication No. (NIH) 74-612 (1974) (Raiti, S., ed.), pp. 294–312.Google Scholar
  96. 96.
    Parker, D. C., Rossman, L. G., VanderLaan, E. F., Persistence of rhythmic human growth hormone release during sleep in fasted and nonisocalorically fed normal subjects. Metabolism.21 (1972), 241–252.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  97. 97.
    Parker, D. C., Sassin, J. F., Mace, J. W., Gotlin, R. W., Rossman, L. G., Human growth hormone release during sleep: Electroencephalographic correlation. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.29 (1969), 871–874.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  98. 98.
    Pawel, M. A., Sassin, J. F., Weitzman, E. D., The temporal relation between HGH release and sleep stage changes at nocturnal sleep onset in man. Life Sci.11 (1972), Part I, 587–593.Google Scholar
  99. 99.
    Powell, G. F., Brasel, J. A., Raiti, S., Blizzard, R. M., Emotional deprivation and growth retardation simulating idiopathic hypopituitarism. II. Endocrinologic evaluation of the syndrome. New Engl. J. Med.276 (1967), 1279–1283.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  100. 100.
    Powell, G. F., Hopwood, N. J., Barratt, E. S., Growth hormone studies before and during catch-up growth in a child with emotional deprivation and short stature. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.37 (1973), 674–679.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  101. 101.
    Prange, A. J., Lipton, M. A., Nemeroff, C. B., Wilson, I. C., The role of hormones in depression. Life Sci.20 (1977), 1305–1318.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  102. 102.
    Quabbe, H.-J., Chronobiology of growth hormone secretion. Chronobiologia4 (1977), 217–246.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  103. 103.
    Quabbe, H.-J., Endocrine concomitants of the sleep-wake rhythm in man. In: Environmental Endocrinology (Assenmacher, I., Farner, D. S., eds.), pp. 124–131. Berlin-Heidelberg-New York: Springer. 1978.Google Scholar
  104. 103.(a)
    Quabbe, H.-J., The endocrinology of growth hormone secreting microadenomas. In: Pituitary Microadenomas (Faglia, B., Giovanelli, M. A., MacLeod, R. M., eds.), pp. 229–245. London: Academic Press. 1980.Google Scholar
  105. 103.(b)
    Quabbe, H.-J., Treatment of acromegaly by transsphenoidal operation, 90-yttrium implantation and bromocriptine: results in 230 patients. Clin. Endocrinol.16 (1982), 107–119.Google Scholar
  106. 104.
    Quabbe, H.-J., Bratzke, H.-J., Siegers, U., Elban, K., Studies on the relationship between plasma free fatty acids and growth hormone secretion in man. J. Clin. Invest.51 (1972), 2388–2398.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  107. 105.
    Quabbe, H.-J., Bumke-Vogt, C., Gregor, M., Stolz, B., Witt, I., 24-hour pattern of plasma prolactin in the male rhesus monkey and its relation to the sleep/wake cycle. Endocrinology110 (1982), 969–975.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  108. 106.
    Quabbe, H.-J., Gregor, M., Bumke-Vogt, C., Eckhof, A., Witt, I., Twenty-four-hour pattern of growth hormone secretion in the rhesus monkey: Studies including alterations of the sleep/wake and sleep stage cycles. Endocrinology109 (1981), 513–522.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  109. 107.
    Quabbe, H.-J., Gregor, M., Bumke-Vogt, C., Witt, I., Giannella-Neto, D., Endocrine rhythms in a nonhuman primate, the rhesus monkey. Adv. Biol. Psychiat.11 (1983), 48–59.Google Scholar
  110. 108.
    Quabbe, H.-J., Helge, H., Verhalten der STH-Sekretion bei der Fettsucht. Verh. Dtsch. Ges. inn. Med.73 (1967), 389–394.Google Scholar
  111. 109.
    Quabbe, H.-J., Helge, H., Kubicki, S., Nocturnal growth hormone secretion: Correlation with sleeping EEG in adults and pattern in children and adolescents with non-pituitary dwarfism, overgrowth and with obesity. Acta Endocrinol. (Kbh.)67 (1971), 767–783.Google Scholar
  112. 110.
    Quabbe, H.-J., Kroll, M., Thomsen, P., Dissociation of light onset and wake onset: Effect on rhesus monkey growth hormone secretion. Endocrinology112 (1983), 1828–1831.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  113. 111.
    Quabbe, H.-J., Luyckx, A. S., L'age, M., Schwarz, C., Growth hormone, cortisol, and glucagon concentrations during plasma free fatty acid depression: Different effects of nicotinic acid and an adenosine derivative (BM 11.189). J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.57 (1983), 410–414.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  114. 112.
    Quabbe, H.-J., Schilling, E., Helge, H., Pattern of growth hormone secretion during a 24-hour fast in normal adults. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.26 (1966), 1173–1177.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  115. 113.
    Quabbe, H.-J., Trompke, M., Luyckx, A. S., Influence of ketone body infusion on plasma growth hormone and glucagon in man. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.57 (1983), 613–618.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  116. 114.
    Raghuramulu, N., Rao, K. S. J., Growth hormone secretion in protein-calorie malnutrition. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.38 (1974), 176–180.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  117. 115.
    Riley, V., Psychoneuroendocrine influences on immunocompetence and neoplasia. Science212 (1981), 1100–1109.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  118. 116.
    Robinson, I. C. A. F., Clark, R. G., Intravenous administration of growth hormone in hypophysectomised rats. Acta Endocrinol. (Kbh.)103 (1983, Suppl. 256), 88 (abstract).Google Scholar
  119. 117.
    Rose, J. C., Goldsmith, P. C., Holland, F. J., Kaplan, S. L., Ganong, W. F., Effect of electrical stimulation of the canine brain stem on the secretion of ACTH and growth hormone (GH). Neuroendocrinology22 (1976), 352–362.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  120. 118.
    Roth, J., Glick, S. M., Yalow, R. S., Berson, S. A., Secretion of human growth hormone: Physiological and experimental modification. Metabolism12 (1963), 577–579.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  121. 119.
    Ruch, W., Mixter, R. C., Russell, R. M., Garcia, J. F., Gale, C. C., Aminergic and thermoregulatory mechanisms in hypothalamic regulation of growth hormone in cats. Am. J. Physiol.233 (1977), E 61-E 69.Google Scholar
  122. 120.
    Sachar, E. J., Frantz, A. G., Altman, M., Sassin, J., Growth hormone and prolactin in unipolar and bipolar depressed patients: Responses to hypoglycemia and L-dopa. Am. J. Psychiatry130 (1973), 1362–2367.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  123. 121.
    Sachar, E. J., Mushrush, G., Perlow, M., Weitzman, E. D., Sassin, J., Growth hormone responses to L-dopa in depressed patients. Science178 (1972), 1304–1305.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  124. 122.
    Sassin, J. F., Parker, D. C., Johnson, L. C., Rossman, L. G., Mace, J. W., Gotlin, R. W., Effects of slow wave sleep deprivation on human growth hormone release in sleep: Preliminary study. Life sci.8 (1969), part I, 1299–1307.Google Scholar
  125. 123.
    Sassin, J. F., Parker, D. C., Mace, J. W., Gotlin, R. W., Johnson, L. C., Rossman, L. G., Human growth hormone release: Relation to slow-wave sleep and sleep-waking cycles. Science165 (1969), 513–515.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  126. 124.
    Schilkrut, R., Chandra, O., Osswald, M., Rüther, E., Baarfüsser, B., Matussek, N., Growth hormone release during sleep and with thermal stimulation in depressed patients. Neuropsychobiology1 (1975), 70–79.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  127. 125.
    Schnure, J. J., Raskin, P., Lipman, R. L., Growth hormone secretion during sleep: Impairment in glucose tolerance and nonsuppressibility by hyperglycemia. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.33 (1971), 234–241.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  128. 126.
    Seggie, J., Brown, G. M., Coping with stress: Parallelism between the effects of septal lesions on growth hormone and corticosterone levels. Biol. Psychiatry11 (1976), 583–597.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  129. 127.
    Shaywitz, B. A., Finkelstein, J., Hellman, L., Weitzman, E. D., Growth hormone in newborn infants during sleep-wake periods. Pediatrics48 (1971), 103–109.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  130. 128.
    Smythe, G. A., Lazarus, L., Suppression of human growth hormone secretion by melatonin and cyproheptadine. J. Clin. Invest.54 (1974), 116–121.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  131. 129.
    Spitzer, J. J., Wolf, E. H., Uptake and oxidation of FFA administered by ventriculocisternal perfusion in the dog. Am. J. Physiol.221 (1971), 1426–1430.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  132. 130.
    Sterman, M. B., Clemente, C. D., Forebrain inhibitory mechanisms: Cortical synchronization induced by basal forebrain stimulation. Exp. Neurol.6 (1962), 91–102.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  133. 131.
    Sterman, M. B., Clemente, C. D., Forebrain inhibitory mechanisms: Sleep patterns induced by basal forebrain stimulation in the behaving cat. Exp. Neurol.6 (1962), 103–117.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  134. 132.
    Syvälahti, E., Pekkarinen, A., Serum growth hormone levels in schizophrenic patients during sleep. J. Neural Transmission40 (1977), 221–226.Google Scholar
  135. 133.
    Taber Pierce, E., Foote, W. E., Hobson, J. A., The efferent connection of the nucleus raphe dorsalis. Brain Res.107 (1976), 137–144.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  136. 134.
    Takahashi, K., Takahashi, Y., Takahashi, S., Honda, Y., Growth hormone and cortisol secretion during nocturnal sleep in narcoleptics and in dogs. In: Psychoneuroendocrinology (Hatotani, N., Tsu, Mieken, eds.), pp. 67–76. Basel: Karger. 1974.Google Scholar
  137. 135.
    Takahashi, Y., Kipnis, D. M., Daughaday, W. H., Growth hormone secretion during sleep. J. Clin. Invest.47 (1968), 2079–2090.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  138. 136.
    Takahashi, Y., Takahashi, K., Higuchi, T., Niimi, Y., Miyasita, A., Ishii, Y., Pituitary hormone secretion and narcolepsy. In: Advances in Sleep Research, Vol. 3. Narcolepsy (Guilleminault, C., Dement, W. C., Passouant, P., eds.), pp. 543–563. New York: Spectrum Publications. 1976.Google Scholar
  139. 137.
    Tannenbaum, G. S., Epelbaum, J., Colle, E., Brazeau, P., Martin, J. B., Antiserum to somatostatin reverses starvation-induced inhibition of growth hormone but not insulin secretion. Endocrinology102 (1978), 1909–1914.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  140. 138.
    Tannenbaum, G. S., Martin, J. B., Evidence for an endogenous ultradian rhythm governing growth hormone secretion in the rat. Endocrinology98 (1976), 562–570.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  141. 139.
    Taylor, A. L., Finster, J. L., Mintz, D. H., Metabolic clearance and production rates of human growth hormone. J. Clin. Invest.48 (1969), 2349–2358.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  142. 140.
    Toivola, P. T. K., Gale, C. C., Central adrenergic regulation of growth hormone secretion in baboons. Intern. J. Neuroscience4 (1972), 53–63.Google Scholar
  143. 141.
    Troxler, R. G., Sprague, E. A., Albanese, R. A., Fuchs, R., Thompson, A. J., The association of elevated plasma cortisol and early atherosclerosis as demonstrated by coronary angiography. Atherosclerosis26 (1977), 151–162.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  144. 142.
    Urman, S., Critchlow, V., Long term elevations in plasma thyrotropin, but not growth hormone, concentrations associated with lesion-induced depletion of median eminence somatostatin. Endocrinology112 (1983), 659–664.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  145. 143.
    Vander Laan, W. P., Parker, D. C., Rossman, L. G., VanderLaan, E. F., Implications of growth hormone release in sleep. Metabolism19 (1970), 891–897.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  146. 144.
    Vigneri, R., D'Agata, R., Growth hormone release during the first year of life in relation to sleep-wake periods. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.33 (1971), 561–563.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  147. 145.
    Vigneri, R., Pezzino, V., Squatrito, S., Calandra, A., Maricchiolo, M., Sleep-associated growth hormone (GH) release in schizophrenia. Neuroendocrinology14 (1974), 356–361.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  148. 146.
    Villablanca, J., Role of the thalamus in sleep control: Sleep-wakefulness studies in chronic diencephalic and athalamic cats. In: Basic Sleep Mechanisms (Petre-Quadens, O., Schlag, J. D., eds.), pp. 51–78. New York: Academic Press. 1974.Google Scholar
  149. 147.
    Vogel, H.-P., Kroll, H., Fritschka, E., Kroll, M., Quabbe, H.-J., Pathologische Tag-Nacht-Profile von Wachstumshormon und Prolaktin bei apallischen Patienten — Beziehungen zur Schwere des Krankheitsbildes und Einfluß schlafähnlicher Zustände. EEG-EMG12 (1981) 218–219 (abstract).Google Scholar
  150. 148.
    Wehrenberg, W. B., Brazeau, P., Luben, R., Böhlen, P., Guillemin, R., Inhibition of the pulsatile secretion of growth hormone by monoclonal antibodies to the hypothalamic growth hormone releasing factor (GRF). Endocrinology111 (1982), 2147–2148.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  151. 149.
    Weitzman, E. D., Boyar, R. M., Kapen, S., Hellman, L., The relationship of sleep and sleep stages to neuroendocrine secretion and biological rhythms in man. In: Rec. Progr. Hormone Res. 31 (Greep, R. O., ed.), pp. 399–446. New York: Academic Press. 1975.Google Scholar
  152. 150.
    Weitzman, E. D., Perlow, M., Sassin, J. F., Fukushima, D., Burack, B., Hellman, L., Persistence of the twenty-four hour pattern of episodic cortisol secretion and growth hormone release in blind subjects. Transactions Amer. Neurol. Assoc.97 (1972), 197–198.Google Scholar
  153. 151.
    Werrbach, J. H., Gale, C. C., Goodner, C. J., Conway, M. J., Effects of autonomic blocking agents on growth hormone, insulin, free fatty acids and glucose in baboons. Endocrinology86 (1970), 77–82.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  154. 152.
    Williams, Jr., R. B., Lane, J. D., Kuhn, C. M., Melosh, W., White, A. D., Schanberg, S. M., Type A behavior and elevated physiological and neuroendocrine responses to cognitive tasks. Science218 (1982), 483–485.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  155. 153.
    Willoughby, J. O., Koblar, S., Jervois, P. M., Menadue, M. F., Oliver, J. R., Evidence that the regulation of growth hormone secretion is mediated predominantly by a growth hormone releasing factor. Neuroendocrinology36 (1983), 358–363.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  156. 154.
    Willoughby, J. O., Martin, J. B., Renaud, L. P., Brazeau, P., Pulsatile growth hormone release in the rat: failure to demonstrate a correlation with sleep phases. Endocrinology98 (1976), 991–996.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  157. 155.
    Wolff, G., Money, J., Relationship between sleep and growth in patients with reversible somatotropin deficiency (psychosocial dwarfism). Psychological Med.3 (1973), 18–27.Google Scholar
  158. 156.
    Yalow, R. S., Varsano-Aharon, N., Echemendia, E., Berson, S. A., HGH and ACTH secretory responses to stress. Horm. Metab. Res.1 (1969), 3–8.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  159. 157.
    Zir, L. M., Parker, D. C., Smith, R. A., Rossman, L. G., The relationship of human growth hormone and plasma tyrosine during sleep. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.34 (1972), 1–6.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  160. 157A.
    Othmer, E., Hayden, M. P., Segelbaum, R., Encephalic cycles during sleep and wakefulness in humans: 24-hour pattern. Science164 (1969), 447–449.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  161. 157B.
    Finkelstein, J. W., Roffwarg, H. P., Boyar, R. M., Kream, J., Hellman, L., Age-related change in the twenty-four-hour spontaneous secretion of growth hormone. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.35 (1972), 665–670.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  162. 157C.
    Sassin, J., Frantz, A. G., Weitzman, E. D., Kapen, S., Human prolactin: 24-hour pattern with increased release during sleep. Science177 (1972), 1205–1207.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  163. 157D.
    Kapen, S., Boyar, R., Perlow, M., Hellman, L., Weitzman, E. D., Luteinizing hormone: Changes in secretory pattern during sleep in adult women. Life Sci.13 (1973), 693–701.Google Scholar
  164. 157E.
    Azukizawa, M., Pekary, A. E., Hershman, J. M., Parker, D. C., Plasma thyrotropin thyroxine, and triiodothyronine relationships in man. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.43 (1976), 533–542.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  165. 157F.
    Tanaka, K., Nicholson, W. E., Orth, D. N., Diurnal rhythm and disappearance half-time of endogenous plasma immunoreactive β-MSH (LPH) and ACTH in man. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.46 (1978), 883–890.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  166. 157G.
    Tannenbaum, G. S., Martin, J. B., Evidence for an endogenous ultradian rhythm governing growth hormone secretion in the rat. Endocrinology98 (1976), 562–570.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  167. 157H.
    Vazquez, A. M., Schutt-Aine, J., Drash, A. L., Kenny, F. M., Diurnal patterns of secretion of cortisol and growth hormone in normal adolescents, in patients with exogenous and endogenous Cushing's syndrome, in patients with diabetes mellitus, and in fasting subjects. J. Paediatr.83 (1973), 578–586.Google Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer-Verlag 1985

Authors and Affiliations

  • H. -J. Quabbe
    • 1
  1. 1.Section of Endocrinology, Department of Internal MedicineFreie UniversitätBerlin

Personalised recommendations