Journal of World Prehistory

, Volume 1, Issue 2, pp 171–224 | Cite as

The prehistory of Island Southeast Asia: A multidisciplinary review of recent research

  • Peter Bellwood
Article

Abstract

Island Southeast Asia extends across both the equatorial and the intermediate tropical zones of world climate, and it also spans a region of complex and geologically unstable land and sea relationships. The Sundaland region in the west and the isolated islands of Wallacea in the east both witnessed complex trajectories of human movement and evolution during the Pleistocene. The record of human evolution in Sundaland is still affected by uncertainties over phylogeny, dates, and archaeological correlations. Initial human settlement across Huxley's Line into Wallacea cannot at present be proven to be older than the Late Pleistocene. Stone tool industries dating to within the past 40,000 years are described, including new discoveries which indicate a surprising level of technological virtuosity. Human populations of the Late Pleistocene and Holocene are also considered in terms of skeletal and genetic data, particularly with respect to the rather controversial antecedents of the present, mainly Mongoloid, population. The article terminates its coverage at about 2000 B.C., within the period characterized by the expansion of speakers of Austronesian languages and by the expansion of agriculture into a porous and often-resistant network of hunter-gatherer societies. The archaeological and ethnographic records of the region bear witness to a continuous but dwindling existence of hunting and gathering right through to the present day. While the results of archaeology occupy a central position in the reconstruction of Southeast Asian prehistory, a proper understanding can be achieved only if a multidisciplinary standpoint is adopted.

Key words

Indonesia Malaysia hominids Pleistocene environments early agriculture Austronesian languages 
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Aharon, P. (1983). Surface ocean temperature variations during the late Wisconsian stages. InProceedings of the First CLIMANZ Conference, Department of Biogeography and Geomorphology, Australian National University, Canberra, pp. 3–4.Google Scholar
  2. An. Z.-m. (1981). The Neolithic archaeology of China.Early China 5: 35–45.Google Scholar
  3. Audley-Charles, M. G., and Hooijer, D. A. (1973). Relation of Pleistocene migrations of pygmy stegodonts to island arc tectonics in eastern Indonesia.Nature (Phys. Sci.)241: 197–198.Google Scholar
  4. Bandi, H. G. (1951). Die Obsidianindustrie der Umgebung von Bandung in Westjava. InSüdseestudien: Gedenkschrift zur Erinnerung an Felix Speiser, Museum für Volkerkunde, Basel, pp. 127–161.Google Scholar
  5. Barth, F. (1952). The southern Mongoloid migration.Man. 52: 5–8.Google Scholar
  6. Bartstra, G.-J. (1976).Contributions to the Study of the Palaeolithic Patjitan Culture, Java, Indonesia. Part 1, E. J. Brill, Leiden.Google Scholar
  7. Bartstra, G.-J. (1982). The river-laid strata near Trinil.Mod. Quatern. Res. Southeast Asia 7: 97–130.Google Scholar
  8. Bartstra, G.-J. (1983). Some remarks upon fossil man from Java, his age, and his tools.Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land-, en Volkenkunde 139: 421–434.Google Scholar
  9. Batchelor, B. C. (1979). Discontinuously rising Late Cenozoic sea levels, with special reference to Sundaland, Southeast Asia.Geol. Mijnbouw 58: 1–20.Google Scholar
  10. Bellwood, P. S. (1976). Archaeological research in Minahasa and the Talaud Islands, northeastern Indonesia.Asian Perspect. 19: 240–288.Google Scholar
  11. Bellwood, P. S. (1978).Man's Conquest of the Pacific, Collins, Auckland.Google Scholar
  12. Bellwood, P. S. (1980a). The peopling of the Pacific.Sci. Am. 243(5): 74–85.Google Scholar
  13. Bellwood, P. S. (1980b). Plants, climate and people: The early horticultural prehistory of Indonesia. In Fox, J. J. (ed.),Indonesia: The Making of a Culture, Research School of Pacific Studies, Canberra, pp. 57–74.Google Scholar
  14. Bellwood, P. S. (1983). New perspectives on Indo-Malaysian prehistory.Indo-Pacif. Prehist. Assoc. Bull. 4: 71–83.Google Scholar
  15. Bellwood, P. S. (1984a). The great Pacific migration.Yearbook Sci. Future 1984: 80–93.Google Scholar
  16. Bellwood, P. S. (1984b).Archaeological research in the Madai-Baturong region, Sabah.Indo-Pacif. Prehist. Assoc. Bull. 5: 38–54.Google Scholar
  17. Bellwood, P. S. (1985).The Prehistory of Indo-Malaysian Archipelago, Academic, Sydney.Google Scholar
  18. Bellwood, P. S. (1986). A hypothesis for Austronesian origins.Asian Perspect.26(1) (in press).Google Scholar
  19. Benedict, P. K. (1975).Austro-Thai Language and Culture, HRAF Press, New Haven, Conn.Google Scholar
  20. Bijlmer, H. J. T. (1929).Outlines of the Anthropology of the Timor-Archipelago, G. Kolff, Weltevreden.Google Scholar
  21. Biswas, B. (1973). Quaternary changes in sea level in the South China Sea.Bull. Geol. Soc. Malaysia 6: 229–255.Google Scholar
  22. Blust, R. A. (1976). Austronesian culture history: Some linguistic inferences and their relations to the archaeological record.World Archaeol. 8: 19–43.Google Scholar
  23. Blust, R. A. (1977). The Proto-Austronesian pronouns and Austronesian subgrouping: A preliminary report.Working Papers in Linguistics, Vol.9, Department of Linguistics, University of Hawaii, Honolulu.Google Scholar
  24. Blust, R. A. (1978). Eastern Malayo-Polynesian: A subgrouping argument. In Wurm, S. A., and Carrington, L. (eds.),Second International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics, Pacific Linguistics Series C61, Australian National University, Canberra, Fascicle I, pp. 181–234.Google Scholar
  25. Blust, R. A. (1980). Early Austronesian social organisation: The evidence of language.Curr. Anthropol. 21: 205–247.Google Scholar
  26. Blust, R. A. (1981). Variation in retention rate amongst Austronesian languages. Paper presented at 3rd International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics, Bali, January.Google Scholar
  27. Blust, R. A. (1982). The linguistic value of the Wallace Line.Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land-, en Volkenkunde 138: 231–250.Google Scholar
  28. Boserup, E. (1965).The Conditions of Agricultural Growth, Allen and Unwin, London.Google Scholar
  29. Brace, C. L. (1980). Tooth size and Austronesian origins. In Naylor, P. (ed.),Austronesian Studies, Michigan Papers on South and Southeast Asia 15, pp. 167–180.Google Scholar
  30. Braches, F., and Shutler, R. (1983–1984). Early vertebrates and the theory of the emergence of Java.Southeast Asian Stud. Newslett. 13: 1–2;16: 1–3.Google Scholar
  31. Braches, F., and Shutler, R. (1984). The Philippines and Pleistocene dispersal of mammals in island Southeast Asia.Philip. Q. Cult. Soc. 12: 106–115.Google Scholar
  32. Bronson, B. (1986). Radiocarbon dates for Southeast Asia. In Ehrich, R. (ed.),Chronologies in Old World Archaeology, University of Chicago Press, Chicago (in press).Google Scholar
  33. Bronson, B., and Asmar, T. (1975). Prehistoric investigations at Tianko Panjang cave, Sumatra.Asian Perspect. 18: 128–145.Google Scholar
  34. Bronson, B., and Glover, I. C. (1984). Archaeological radiocarbon dates from Indonesia: A first list.Indonesia Circle 34: 37–44.Google Scholar
  35. Brooks, S. T., Hegler, R., and Brooks, R. H. (1977). Radiocarbon dating and palaeoserology of a selected burial series from the Great Cave of Niah, Sarawak, Malaysia.Asian Perspect. 20: 21–31.Google Scholar
  36. Brothwell, D. (1960). Upper Pleistocene human skull from Niah caves, Sarawak.Sarawak Mus. J. 9: 323–349.Google Scholar
  37. Budd, W. F. (1983). Changes in the earth's orbital rediation regime. InProceedings of the First CLIMANZ Conference, Department of Biogeography and Geomorphology, Australian National University, Canberra, pp. 125–129.Google Scholar
  38. Bulbeck, D. (1982). A re-evaluation of possible evolutionary processes in Southeast Asia since the Late Pleistocene.Indo-Pacif. Prehist. Assoc. Bull. 3: 1–21.Google Scholar
  39. Chang, K. C. (1969). Fengpitou, Tapenkeng and the Prehistory of Taiwan. Yale Univ. Publ. Anthropol. 73, New Haven, Conn.Google Scholar
  40. Chang, K. C. (1977).The Archaeology of Ancient China, rev. 3rd ed., Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn.Google Scholar
  41. Chang, K. C. (1981). The affluent foragers in the coastal areas of China. In Koyama, S., and Thomas, D. H. (eds.),Affluent Foragers, Senri Ethnological Studies 9, National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka, pp. 177–186.Google Scholar
  42. Chang, T. T. (1976). The rice cultures.Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. Ser. B 275: 143–155.Google Scholar
  43. Chang, T. T. (1983). The origin and early cultures of the cereal grains and food legumes. In Keightley, D. N. (ed.),The Origins of Chinese Civilization, University of California Press, Berkeley, pp. 65–94.Google Scholar
  44. Chapman, V. (1981).The Australian-Indonesian Archaeological Expedition to Sulawesi, 1969, M.A. dissertation, Australian National University, Canberra.Google Scholar
  45. Chappell, J. (1982). Sea levels and sediments: Some features of the context of coastal archaeological sites in the tropics.Archaeol. Oceania 17: 69–78.Google Scholar
  46. Chappell, J. (1983). A revised sea-level curve for the last 30,000 years from Papua New Guinea.Search 14: 99–101.Google Scholar
  47. Chappell, J., and Thom, B. G. (1977). Sea levels and coasts. In Allen, J., Golson, J., and Jones, R. (eds.),Sunda and Sahul, Academic, London, pp. 275–292.Google Scholar
  48. Chekiang Province and Chekiang Provincial Museum (1978). Excavations (first season) in Yu-Yao County, Chekiang Province.K'ao Ku Hsüeh Pao 48: 94, 106–107.Google Scholar
  49. Cherry, R. (1978). An analysis of the lithic industry of Buad Island, Samar.Philip. Q. Cult. Soc. 6: 3–80.Google Scholar
  50. Chivers, D. J. (1977). The lesser apes. In Prince Rainier III and Bourne, G. H. (eds.),Primate Conservation, Academic, London, pp. 539–598.Google Scholar
  51. CLIMANZ (1983).Proceedings of the First CLIMANZ Conference, Department of Biogeography and Geomorphology, Australian National University, Canberra.Google Scholar
  52. CLIMAP (1976). The surface of the Ice-Age earth.Science 191: 1131–1137.Google Scholar
  53. Coon, C. S. (1962).The Origin of Races, Jonathan Cape, London.Google Scholar
  54. Coon, C. S. (1966).The Living Races of Man, Jonathan Cape, London.Google Scholar
  55. Coutts, P. J. F. (1984). A hunter-gatherer/agriculturalist interface on Panay Island, Philippines. In Bayard, D. (ed.),Southeast Asian Archaeology at the XV Pacific Science Congress, Department of Anthropology, Otago University, Dunedin, pp. 218–234.Google Scholar
  56. Coutts, P. J. F., and Wesson, J. P. (1980). Models of Philippine prehistory: A review of the flaked stone industries.Philip. Q. Cult. Soc. 8: 203–259.Google Scholar
  57. Covey, C. (1984). The earth's orbit and the Ice Ages.Sci. Am. 250(2): 42–50.Google Scholar
  58. Cranbrook, Earl of (1986). A review of fossil and prehistoric remains of rhinoceros in Borneo.Sabah Mus. Ann. (in press).Google Scholar
  59. Curtis, G. H. (1981). Establishing a relevant time scale in anthropological and archaeological research.Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. Ser. B 292: 7–19.Google Scholar
  60. Dahl, O. C. (1973).Proto-Austronesian, Scandinavian Institute of Asian Studies Monograph 15.Google Scholar
  61. Dortch, C. E. (1977). Early and late stone industrial phases in Western Australia. In Wright, R. V. S. (ed.),Stone Tools as Cultural Markers, Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, Canberra, pp. 104–182.Google Scholar
  62. Dunn, F. L., and Dunn, D. F. (1977). Maritime adaptations and the exploitation of marine resources in Sundaic Southeast Asian prehistory.Mod. Quatern. Res. Southeast Asia 3: 1–28.Google Scholar
  63. Duplessy, J. C. (1982). Glacial to interglacial contrasts in the northern Indian Ocean.Nature 295: 494–498.Google Scholar
  64. Dutton, T. (1982). Borrowing in Austronesian and Non-Austronesian languages of coastal south-east mainland Papua New Guinea. In Halim, A., Carrington, L., and Wurm, S. A. (eds.),Papers from the Third International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics, Vol. 1, Pacific Linguistics Series C74, Australian National University, Canberra, pp. 109–177.Google Scholar
  65. Dyen, I. (1962). The lexicostatistical classification of the Malayo-Polynesian languages.Language 38: 38–46.Google Scholar
  66. Dyen, I. (1965). A lexicostatistical classification of the Austronesian languages.Int. J. Am. Linguist. Memoir 19.Google Scholar
  67. Flenley, J. R. (1985). Man's impact on the vegetation of Southeast Asia: The pollen evidence. In Misra, V. N., and Bellwood, P. S. (eds.),Recent Advances in Indo-Pacific Prehistory, Oxford & IBH, New Delhi, pp. 297–305.Google Scholar
  68. Foley, W. A. (1980). History of migrations in Indonesia as seen by a linguist. In Fox, J. J. (ed.),Indonesia: The Making of a Culture, Research School of Pacific Studies, Canberra, pp. 75–80.Google Scholar
  69. Fox, R. B. (1970).The Tabon Caves, National Museum Monograph 1, Manila.Google Scholar
  70. Fox, R. B. (1978). Notes on the stone tools of the Tasaday. In Yen, D. E., and Nance, J. (eds.),Further Studies on the Tasaday, Panamin Foundation, Makati, Philippines, pp. 3–12.Google Scholar
  71. Fox, R. B., and Peralta, J. T. (1974). Preliminary report on the Palaeolithic archaeology of the Cagayan Valley, Philippines, and the Cabalwanian industry. InProceedings of the First Regional Seminar on Southeast Asian Prehistory and Archaeology, National Museum of the Philippines, Manila, pp. 100–147.Google Scholar
  72. Friedlaender, J. L. (1975).Patterns of Human Variation, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.Google Scholar
  73. Glinka, J. (1981). Racial history of Indonesia. In Suzuki, H.,et al. (eds.),Rassengeschichte der Mensheit 8, Lieferung Asien I: Japan, Indonesien, Ozeanien, Oldenbourg, München, pp. 79–113.Google Scholar
  74. Glover, I. C. (1976). Ulu Leang cave, Maros: A preliminary sequence of post-Pleistocene cultural development in South Sulawesi.Archipel 11: 113–154.Google Scholar
  75. Glover, I. C. (1977). The late Stone Age in eastern Indonesia.World Archaeol. 9: 42–61.Google Scholar
  76. Glover, I. C. (1981). Leang Burung 2: An Upper Paleolithic rock shelter in South Sulawesi, Indonesia.Mod. Quatern. Res. Southeast Asia 6, 1–38.Google Scholar
  77. Glover, I. C. (1985). Some problems relating to the domestication of rice in Asia. In Misra, V. N., and Bellwood, P. S. (eds.),Recent Advances in Indo-Pacific Prehistory, Oxford & IBH, New Delhi, pp. 265–274.Google Scholar
  78. Glover, I. C., and Presland, G. A. (1985). Microliths in Indonesian flaked stone industries. In Misra, V. N., and Bellwood, P. S. (eds.),Recent Advances in Indo-Pacific Prehistory, Oxford & IBH, New Delhi, pp. 185–195.Google Scholar
  79. Golson, J. (1977). No room at the top: Agricultural intensification in the New Guinea Highlands. In Allen, J., Golson, J., and Jones, R. (eds.),Sunda and Sahul, Academic, London, pp. 601–638.Google Scholar
  80. Golson, J. (1981). New Guinea agricultural history: A case study. In Denoon, D., and Snowden, C. (eds.),A Time to Plant and a Time to Uproot, Institute of Papua New Guinea Studies, Port Moresby, pp. 55–64.Google Scholar
  81. Griffin, B. (1985). A contemporary view of the shift from hunting to horticulture: The Agta Case. In Misra, V. N., and Bellwood, P. S. (eds.),Recent Advances in Indo-Pacific Prehistory, Oxford & IBH, New Delhi, pp. 349–352.Google Scholar
  82. Groves, C. P. (1976). The origin of the mammalian fauna of Sulawesi.Z. Saügetier.41: 201–216.Google Scholar
  83. Groves, C. P. (1984). Of mice and men and pigs in the Indo-Australian archipelago.Canberra Anthropol. 7(1): 1–19.Google Scholar
  84. Haile, N. S. (1973). The geomorphology and geology of the northern part of the Sunda Shelf.Pacific Geol. 6: 73–90.Google Scholar
  85. Hamilton, A. (1976). The significance of patterns of distribution as shown by forest plants and animals in tropical Africa for the reconstruction of Upper Pleistocene palaeoenvironments.Palaeocol. Africa 9: 63–97.Google Scholar
  86. Harris, D. R. (1977). Alternative pathways towards agriculture. In Reed, C. A. (ed.),Origins of Agriculture, Mouton, The Hague, pp. 179–244.Google Scholar
  87. Harrisson, B. (1967). A classification of Stone Age burials from Niah Great Cave, Sarawak.Sarawak. Mus. J. 15: 126–200.Google Scholar
  88. Harrisson, T. (1975). Tampan: Malaysia's Palaeolithic reconsidered.Mod. Quatern. Res. Southeast Asia 1: 53–70.Google Scholar
  89. Harvey, M. (1982). Subgroups in Austronesian. In Halim, A., Carrington, L., and Wurm, S. A. (eds.),Papers from the Third International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics, Vol. 2, Pacific Linguistics Series C75, Australian National University, Canberra, pp. 47–99.Google Scholar
  90. Ha Van Tan (1978). The Hoabinhian in the context of Vietnam.Vietnam. Stud. 46: 127–197.Google Scholar
  91. Heine Geldern, R. von (1932). Urheimat und früheste Wanderungen der Austronesier.Anthropos 27: 543–619.Google Scholar
  92. Hooijer, D. A. (1975). Quaternary mammals east and west of Wallace's Line.Mod. Quatern. Res. Southeast Asia 1: 37–46.Google Scholar
  93. Hooijer, D. A. (1982). The extinct giant land tortoise and pygmy stegodont of Indonesia.Mod. Quatern. Res. Southeast Asia 7: 171–176.Google Scholar
  94. Hope, G. S. (1980), Historical influences in the New Guinea flora. In van Royen, P. (ed.),The Alpine Flora of New Guinea, J. Cramer, Vaduz, pp. 223–248.Google Scholar
  95. Howells, W. W. (1973).The Pacific Islanders, Scribner's, New York.Google Scholar
  96. Howells, W. W. (1976). Physical variation and history in Melanesia and Australia.Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 45: 641–560.Google Scholar
  97. Hutterer, K. L. (1976). An evolutionary approach to the Southeast Asian cultural sequence.Curr. Anthropol. 17: 221–242.Google Scholar
  98. Hutterer, K. L. (1977). Reinterpreting the Southeast Asian Palaeolithic. In Allen, J., Golson, J., and Jones, R. (eds.),Sunda and Sahul, Academic, London, pp. 31–71.Google Scholar
  99. Hutterer, K. L. (1983). The natural and cultural history of Southeast Asian agriculture.Anthropos 78: 169–212.Google Scholar
  100. Hutterer, K. L., and MacDonald, W. K. (eds.) (1982).Houses Built on Scattered Poles, University of San Carlos, Cebu City.Google Scholar
  101. Inskeep, R. R. (1978).The Peopling of Southern Africa, David Philip, Cape Town.Google Scholar
  102. Ikawa-Smith, F. (1979). Technological traditions in Late Pleistocene and early Holocene Japan. Paper read at 14th Pacific Science Congress, Khabarovsk, September.Google Scholar
  103. Ikawa-Smith, F. (1982). The early prehistory of the Americas as seen from Northeast Asia. In Ericson, J. E., Taylor, R. E., and Berger, R. (eds.),Peopling of the New World, Ballena Press, Los Altos, pp. 15–33.Google Scholar
  104. Isaac, G. L. (1982). The earliest archaeological traces. In Clark, J. D. (ed.),The Cambridge History of Africa, Vol. 1, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 157–247.Google Scholar
  105. Jacob, T. (1967).Some Problems Pertaining to the Racial History of the Indonesian Region, Drukkerij Neerlandia, Utrecht.Google Scholar
  106. Jacob, T. (1972). The absolute age of the Djetis beds at Modjokerto.Antiquity 46: 148.Google Scholar
  107. Jacob, T. (1978). The puzzle of Solo Man.Mod. Quatern. Res. Southeast Asia 4: 31–40.Google Scholar
  108. Jacob, T. (1979). Hominine evolution in South East Asia.Archaeol. Phys. Anthropol. Oceania 14: 1–10.Google Scholar
  109. Jacob, T. (1980). The Pithecanthropus of Indonesia: Phenotype, genetics and ecology. In Konigsson, L.-K. (ed.),Current Argument on Early Man, Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp. 170–179.Google Scholar
  110. Jacob, T., Soejono, R. P., Freeman, L. G., and Brown, F. H. (1978). Stone tools from mid-Pleistocene sediments in Java.Science 202: 885–887.Google Scholar
  111. Katili, J. A. (1978). Past-present geotectonic positions of Sulawesi.Tectonophysics 45: 289–322.Google Scholar
  112. Keats, B. (1977). Genetic structure of the indigenous populations in Australia and New Guinea.J. Hum. Evol. 6: 319–339.Google Scholar
  113. Keers, W. (1948).An Anthropological Survey of the Eastern Little Sunda Islands. Koniklijke Vereeniging Indisch Instituut, Amsterdam.Google Scholar
  114. Kennedy, K. A. R. (1977). The deep skull of Niah.Asian Perspect. 20: 32–50.Google Scholar
  115. Kirk, R. L. (1979). Gentic differentiation in Australia and its bearing on the origin of the first Americans. In Laughlin, W. S., and Harper, A. B. (eds.),The First Americans: Origins, Affinities and Adaptations, G. Fischer, New York, pp. 221–237.Google Scholar
  116. Kirk, R. L. (1980a). Languages, genes and people in the Pacific. In Erikson, A. W. (ed.),Population Structure and Genetic Disorders, Academic, London, pp. 113–137.Google Scholar
  117. Kirk, R. L. (1980b). Population movements in the Southwest Pacific: The genetic evidence. In Fox, J. J. (ed.),Indonesia: The Making of a Culture, Research School of Pacific Studies, Canberra, pp. 45–56.Google Scholar
  118. Kirk, R. L. (1981).Aboriginal Man Adapting, Clarendon Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
  119. Kirk, R. L. (1982). Microevolution and migration in the Pacific. InHuman Genetics, Part A: the Unfolding Genome, Alan R. Liss, New York, pp. 215–225.Google Scholar
  120. Klein, J., Lerman, J. C., Damon, P. E., and Ralph, E. H. (1982). Calibration of radiocarbon dates.Radiocarbon 24: 103–150.Google Scholar
  121. Kukla, G. (1981). Pleistocene climates on land. In Berger, A. (ed.),Climatic Variations and Variability: Facts and Theories, D. Reidel, Dordrecht, pp. 207–232.Google Scholar
  122. Li, K.-C. (1983).K'en-ting: An Archaeological Laboratory near the Southern Tip of Taiwan, University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor, Mich.Google Scholar
  123. Lie-Injo, L. E. (1976). Genetic relationships of several aboriginal groups in Southeast Asia. In Kirk, R. L., and Thorne, A. G. (eds.),The Origin of the Australians, Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, Canberra, pp. 227–306.Google Scholar
  124. Lovejoy, C. O. (1970). The taxonomic status of theMeganthropus mandibular fragments from the Djetis beds of Java.Man (new ser.)5: 228–236.Google Scholar
  125. Lynch, J. (1982). Melanesian diversity and Polynesian homogeneity: The other side of the coin.Oceanic Linguist. 20: 95–130.Google Scholar
  126. Macintosh, N. W. G. (1978). The Tabon Cave mandible.Archaeol. Phys. Anthropol. Oceania 13: 143–159.Google Scholar
  127. Majid, Z. (1982). The West Mouth, Niah, in the prehistory of Southeast Asia.Sarawak Mus. J. 31.Google Scholar
  128. Manabe, S., and Hahn, D. (1977). Simulation of the tropical climate of an Ice Age.J. Geophys. Res. 82: 3889–3911.Google Scholar
  129. Maringer, J., and Verhoeven, T. (1970). Die Steinartefakte aus der Stegodon-Fossilschicht von Mengeruda auf Flores.Anthropos 65: 229–247.Google Scholar
  130. Matsuo, T. (1975). Rice cultures in China. In Association of Japanese Agricultural Scientific Societies (ed.),Rice in Asia, University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo, pp. 157–169.Google Scholar
  131. Matsu'ura, S. (1982). A chronological framing for the Sangiran hominids.Bull. Nat. Sci. Mus. Tokyo Ser. D Anthropol. 8: 1–53.Google Scholar
  132. McBurney, C. B. M. (1976).Early Man in the Soviet Union, British Academy, London.Google Scholar
  133. Medway, Lord (1972). The Quaternary mammals of Malesia: A review. In Ashton, P., and Ashton, M. (eds.),The Quaternary Era in Malesia, Department of Geography, University of Hull, Hull, pp. 63–83.Google Scholar
  134. Medway, Lord (1977a). The ancient domestic dogs of Malaysia.J. Malays. Branch Roy. Asiat. Soc. 50: 14–27.Google Scholar
  135. Medway, Lord (1977b). The Niah excavations: And an assessment of the impact of early man on mammals in Borneo.Asian Perspect. 20: 51–69.Google Scholar
  136. Medway, Lord (1978). The wild pig remains from the West Mouth, Niah Cave.Sarawak Mus. J. 25: 21–39.Google Scholar
  137. Merimee, T. J., Zapf, J., and Froesch, E. R. (1981). Dwarfism in the Pygmy.N. Engl. J. Med. 305: 905–908.Google Scholar
  138. Mohr, E. C. J. (1945). Climate and soil in the Netherlands Indies. In Honig, P., and Verdoorn, F. (eds.),Science and Scientists in the Netherlands East Indies, Board for the Netherlands, Surinam and Curaçao, New York, pp. 250–254.Google Scholar
  139. Moore, D. R. (1976). Comment (on Hutterer 1976).Curr. Anthropol. 17: 234–235.Google Scholar
  140. Mountain, M.-J. (1983). Preliminary report of excavations at Nombe rockshelter, Simbu Province, Papua New Guinea.Indo-Pacif. Prehist. Assoc. Bull. 4: 84–99.Google Scholar
  141. Movius, H. L. (1944). Early Man and Pleistocene Stratigraphy in South and East Asia. Papers of the Peabody Museum 19, Part 3, Cambridge, Mass.Google Scholar
  142. Mulvaney, D. J. (1985). Australian backed-blade industries in perspective. In Misra, V. N., and Bellwood, P. S. (eds.),Recent Advances in Indo-Pacific Prehistory, Oxford & IBH, New Delhi, pp. 211–217.Google Scholar
  143. Mulvaney, D. J., and Soejono, R. P. (1971). Archaeology in Sulawesi, Indonesia.Antiquity 45: 26–33.Google Scholar
  144. Musser, G. (1982). The Trinil rats.Mod. Quatern. Res. Southeast Asia 7: 65–86.Google Scholar
  145. Ninkovitch, D., and Burckle, L. H. (1978). Absolute age of the base of the hominid-bearing beds in eastern Java.Nature 275: 306–308.Google Scholar
  146. Oakley, K. P., Campbell, B. G., and Molleson, T. I. (eds.) (1975).Catalogue of Fossil Hominids, Part III: Americas, Asia, Australasia, British Museum of Natural History, London.Google Scholar
  147. Oliver, R., and Fagan, B. M. (1978). The emergence of Bantu Africa. In Fage, J. D. (ed.),Cambridge History of Africa, Vol. 2, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 342–409.Google Scholar
  148. Omoto, K. (1981). The genetic origins of the Philippine Negritos.Curr. Anthropol. 22: 421–422.Google Scholar
  149. Oppenoorth, W. F. F. (1936). Een prehistorisch cultuur-centrum langs de Solo-Rivier.Tijdschrift van het Koninklijke Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap 53: 399–411.Google Scholar
  150. Orban-Segebarth, R., and Procureur, F. (1983). Tooth size ofMeganthropus palaeojavanicus.J. Hum. Evol. 12: 711–720.Google Scholar
  151. Orchiston, D. W., and Siesser, W. G. (1982). Chronostratigraphy of the Pleistocene fossil hominids of Java.Mod. Quatern. Res. Southeast Asia 1: 131–150.Google Scholar
  152. Pawley, A. K. (1981). Melanesian diversity and Polynesian homogeneity: A unified explanation for language. In Hollyman, K., and Pawley, A. K. (eds.),Studies in Pacific Languages and Cultures, Linguistic Society of New Zealand, Auckland, pp. 269–309.Google Scholar
  153. Pawley, A. K., and Green, R. C., (1975). Dating the dispersal of the Oceanic languages.Ocean. Linguist. 12: 1–67.Google Scholar
  154. Peterson, G. M., Webb, T., Kutzbach, J. E., van der Hammen, T., Wijmstra, T. A., and Street, F. A. (1979). The continental record of environmental conditions at 18,000 yr B.P.: An initial evaluation.Quartern. Res. 12: 47–82.Google Scholar
  155. Peterson, J. T. (1978).The Ecology of Social Boundaries. University of Illinois Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
  156. Phillipson, D. W. (1982). The later Stone Age in Sub-Saharan Africa. In Clark, J. D. (ed.),Cambridge History of Africa, Vol. 1, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 410–477.Google Scholar
  157. Pietrusewsky, M. (1983). Multivariate analysis of New Guinea and Melanesian skulls: A review.J. Hum. Evol. 12: 61–76.Google Scholar
  158. Pollock, N. J. (1983). The early use of rice in Guam: The evidence from historic records.J. Polynes. Soc. 92: 509–520.Google Scholar
  159. Pope, G. G. (1983). Evidence on the age of the Asian hominidae.Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 80: 4988–4992.Google Scholar
  160. Pope, G. G. (1984). The antiquity and palaeoenvironments of the Asian homininae. In Whyte, R. O. (ed.),The Evolution of the Asian Environment, Centre of Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Vol. II, pp. 822–847.Google Scholar
  161. Prell, W. L., Hutson, W. H., Williams, D. F., Bé, A. W. H., Geitzenauer, K., and Molfino, B. (1980). Surface circulation of the Indian Ocean during the last glacial maximum.Quatern. Res. 14: 309–336.Google Scholar
  162. Presland, G. (1980). Continuity in Indonesian lithic traditions.Artefact 5: 19–45.Google Scholar
  163. Puech, P.-F. (1983). Tooth wear, diet, and the artifacts of Java Man.Curr. Anthropol. 24: 381–382.Google Scholar
  164. Reid, L. A. (1982). The demise of Proto-Philippines. In Halim, A., Carrington, L., and Wurm, S. A. (eds.),Papers from the Third International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics, Vol. 2, Pacific Linguistics Series C75. Australian National University, Canberra, pp. 201–216.Google Scholar
  165. Reid, L. A. (1986). Benedict's Austro-Thai hypothesis—an evaluation.Asian Perspect.26(1) (in press).Google Scholar
  166. Rightmire, G. P. (1980).Homo erectus and human evolution in the African Middle Pleistocene. In Konigsson, L.-K. (ed.),Current Argument on Early Man. Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp. 70–85.Google Scholar
  167. Robinson, J. T. (1968). The origin and adaptive radiation of the Australopithecines. In Kurth, G. (ed.),Evolution und Hominization, Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart, pp. 150–175.Google Scholar
  168. Santa Luca, A. P. (1980). The Ngandong Fossil Hominids. Yale Univ. Publ. Anthropol. 78, New Haven, Conn.Google Scholar
  169. Sartono, S. (1975). Implications arising fromPithecanthropus VIII. In Tuttle, R. H. (ed.),Palaeoanthropology: Morphology and Palaeoecology, Mouton, The Hague, pp. 327–360.Google Scholar
  170. Sartono, S. (1979). The age of the vertebrate fossils and artefacts from Cabenge in South Sulawesi.Mod. Quatern. Res. Southeast Asia 5: 65–82.Google Scholar
  171. Sartono, S., Sémah, F., Astadiredja, K. A. S., Sukendarmono, M., and Djubiantono, T. (1981). The age ofHomo modjokertensis.Mod. Quatern. Res. Southeast Asia 6: 91–102.Google Scholar
  172. Sauer, C. O. (1952).Agricultural Origins and Dispersals, American Geographical Society, New York.Google Scholar
  173. Schrire, C. (1982). The Alligator Rivers: Prehistory and Ecology in Western Arnhem Land. Terra Australis No. 7, Department of Prehistory, Australian National University, Canberra.Google Scholar
  174. Semah, A.-M. (1982). A preliminary report on a Sangiran pollen diagram.Mod. Quatern. Res. Southeast Asia 7: 165–170.Google Scholar
  175. Sémah, F., Sartono, S., Ziam, Y., and Djubiantono, T. (1981). A palaeomagnetic study of Plio-Pleistocene sediments from Sangiran and Simo (central Java): Initial results.Mod. Quatern. Res. Southeast Asia 6: 103–110.Google Scholar
  176. Sémah, F. (1982). Pliocene and Pleistocene geomagnetic reversals recorded in the Gemolong and Sangiran domes (central Java).Mod. Quatern. Res. Southeast Asia 7: 131–150.Google Scholar
  177. Serjeantson, S. W., Kirk, R. L., and Booth, P. B. (1983). Linguistic and genetic differentiation in New Guinea.J. Hum. Evol. 12: 77–92.Google Scholar
  178. Shackleton, N. J. (1977). Carbon-13 inUvigerina. In Anderson, N. R., and Malahoff, A. (eds.),The Fate of Fossil Fuel CO 2 in the Oceans, Plenum, New York, pp. 401–427.Google Scholar
  179. Shutler, R., and Marck, J. C. (1975). On the dispersal of the Austronesian horticulturalists.Archaeol. Phys. Anthropol. Oceania 10: 81–113.Google Scholar
  180. Shutler, R., and Mathisen, M. (1979). Pleistocene studies in the Cagayan Valley of Northern Luzon.J. Hong Kong Archaeol. Soc. 8: 105–113.Google Scholar
  181. Siesser, W. G., and Orchiston, D. W. (1978). Micropalaeontological reassessment of the age ofPithecanthropus mandible C from Sangiran, Indonesia.Mod. Quatern. Res. Southeast Asia 4: 25–30.Google Scholar
  182. Simpson, B. B., and Haffer, J. (1978). Speciation patterns in the Amazonian forest biota.Annu. Rev. Ecol. Systemat. 9: 497–518.Google Scholar
  183. Simpson, G. G. (1977). Too many lines: The limits of the Oriental and Australian zoogeographical regions.Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. 121: 107–120.Google Scholar
  184. Sofro, A. S. M. (1982).Population Genetic Studies in Indonesia, Ph. D. dissertation, Australian National University, Canberra.Google Scholar
  185. Solheim, W. G., II (1979). A look at ‘L'art prébouddhique de la Chine et de l'Asie du Sud-Est et son influence en Océanie’ forty years after.Asian Perspect.22: 165–205.Google Scholar
  186. Solheim, W. G., II (1981). Philippine prehistory. In Casal, G., Jose, R. T., Casiño, E. S., Ellis, G. R., and Solheim, W. G., II (eds.),The People and Art of the Philippines, Museum of Cultural History, Los Angeles, pp. 17–84.Google Scholar
  187. Sondaar, P. Y. (1981). TheGeochelone faunas of the Indonesian archipelago.Mod. Quatern. Res. Southeast Asia 6: 111–119.Google Scholar
  188. Spencer, J. E. (1966).Shifting Cultivation in Southeast Asia, University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
  189. Terrell, J., and Fagan, J. (1975). The savage and the innocent.Yearbook Phys. Anthropol. 19: 2–18.Google Scholar
  190. Thorne, A. G. (1980a). The arrival of man in Australia. In Sherratt, A. (ed.),The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Archaeology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 96–100.Google Scholar
  191. Thorne, A. G. (1980b). The longest link in human evolution in Southeast Asia and the settlement of Australia. In Fox, J. J. (ed.),Indonesia: The Making of a Culture, Research School of Pacific Studies, Canberra, pp. 35–44.Google Scholar
  192. Thorne, A. G., and Wolpoff, M. (1981). Regional continuity in Pleistocene hominid evolution.Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 55: 337–350.Google Scholar
  193. Tjia, H. D. (1980). The Sunda shelf, southeast Asia.Z. Geomorphol. 24: 405–427.Google Scholar
  194. Tobias, P. V., and von Koenigswald, G. H. R. (1964). A comparison between the Olduvai hominines and those of Java, and some implications for hominid phylogeny.Nature 204: 515–518.Google Scholar
  195. Tsukada, M. (1966). Late Pleistocene vegetation and climate in Taiwan.Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 55: 543–548.Google Scholar
  196. Turner, C. G., II (1983). Sinodonty and Sundadonty. In Vasilievsky, R. S. (ed.),Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene Cultural Connections of Asia and America, USSR Academy of Science, Siberian Branch, Novosibirsk, pp. 72–76.Google Scholar
  197. Turner, C. G., II, and Swindler, D. R. (1978). The dentition of New Britain West Nakanai Melanesians.Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 49: 361–372.Google Scholar
  198. University of Kumamoto (1983).Batan Island and Northern Luzon, Faculty of Letters, University of Kumamoto, Japan.Google Scholar
  199. van Andel, T. H., Heath, G. R., Moore, T. C., and McGeary, D. F. R. (1967). Late Quaternary history, climate and oceanography of the Timor Sea.Am. J. Sci. 265: 737–758.Google Scholar
  200. van den Brink, L. M. (1982). On the mammal fauna of the Wajak cave, Java.Mod. Quatern. Res. Southeast Asia 7: 177–194.Google Scholar
  201. van Heekeren, H. R. (1972).The Stone Age of Indonesia, 2nd ed., Nijhoff, The Hague.Google Scholar
  202. van Steenis, C. G. G. J. (1961). Preliminary revision of some genera of Malaysian Papilionaceae I.Reinwardtia 5: 419–456.Google Scholar
  203. van Stein Callenfels, P. V. (1932). Note préliminaire sur les fouilles dans l'abri-sous-roche du Guwa Lawa à Sampung. InHommage du Service Archéologique des Indes Néerlandaises au l er Congrès des Préhistoriens d'Extrême-Orient à Hanoi, Albrecht, Batavia, pp. 16–32.Google Scholar
  204. Verstappen, H. T. (1975). On palaeo climates and landform development in Malesia.Mod. Quatern. Res. Southeast Asia 1: 3–36.Google Scholar
  205. Vos, J. de, and Sondaar, P. Y. (1982). The importance of the Dubois collection reconsidered.Mod. Quatern. Res. Southeast Asia 7: 35–64.Google Scholar
  206. Vos, J. de, Sartono, S., Hardja-Sasmita, S., and Sondaar, P. Y. (1982). The fauna from Trinil, type locality ofHomo erectus: A reinterpretation.Geol. Mijnbouw 61: 207–211.Google Scholar
  207. Walker, D. (1982). Speculations on the origin and evolution of Sunda-Sahul rainforests. In Prance, G. (ed.),Biological Diversification in the Tropics, Columbia University Press, New York, pp. 554–575.Google Scholar
  208. Wasson, R. J., and Cochrane, R. M. (1979). Geological and gemorphological perspectives on archaeological sites in the Cagayan Valley, northern Luzon, Philippines.Mod. Quatern. Res. Southeast Asia 5: 1–26.Google Scholar
  209. Watanabe, N., and Kadar, D. (eds.) (1985).Quaternary Geology of the Hominid Fossil Bearing Formations in Java, Special Publication No. 4, Geological Research and Development Centre, Bandung.Google Scholar
  210. Weidenreich, F. (1946).Apes, Giants and Man, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
  211. Weidenreich, F. (1951). Morphology of Solo Man. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History 43, Part 3.Google Scholar
  212. Whyte, R. O. (1983). The evolution of the Chinese environment. In Keightley, D. N. (ed.),The Origins of Chinese Civilization, University of California Press, Berkeley, pp. 3–20.Google Scholar
  213. Wolpoff, M. H. (1980).Palaeoanthropology, Knopf, New York.Google Scholar
  214. Wolpoff, M. H., Wu, X. J., and Thorne, A. G. (1984). ModernHomo sapiens sapiens origins: A general theory of hominid evolution involving the fossil evidence from East Asia. In Smith, F. H., and Spencer, F. (eds.),The Origins of Modern Humans, Liss, New York, pp. 411–483.Google Scholar
  215. Wood, B. A. (1978).Human Evolution, Chapman and Hall, London.Google Scholar
  216. Wood, J. (1978). Population structure and genetic heterogeneity in the upper Markham Valley of Papua New Guinea.Am J. Phys. Anthropol. 48: 463–470.Google Scholar
  217. Wu, R. (1982).Recent Advances in Chinese Palaeoanthropology, Hong Kong University Press, Hong Kong.Google Scholar
  218. Wurm, S. A. (1978). The emerging linguistic picture and linguistic prehistory of the south-western Pacific. In McCormack, W. C., and Wurm, S. A. (eds.),Approaches to Language—Anthropological Issues, Mouton, The Hague, pp. 191–221.Google Scholar
  219. Wurm, S. A. (1982).Papuan Languages of Oceania, Gunter Narr, Tübingen.Google Scholar
  220. Wurm, S. A. (1983). Linguistic prehistory in the New Guinea area.J. Hum. Evol. 12: 25–35.Google Scholar
  221. Yen, D. E. (1977). Hoabinhian horticulture: The evidence and the questions from northwest Thailand. In Allen, J., Golson, J., and Jones, R. (eds.),Sunda and Sahul, Academic, London, pp. 567–600.Google Scholar

Copyright information

© Plenum Publishing Corporation 1987

Authors and Affiliations

  • Peter Bellwood
    • 1
  1. 1.Department of Prehistory and AnthropologyAustralian National UniversityCanberraAustralia

Personalised recommendations