Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

A Qualitative Exploration of the Relationship Between Racism and Unsafe Sex Among Asian Pacific Islander Gay Men

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Archives of Sexual Behavior Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Although reported cases of HIV/AIDS among gay Asian Pacific Islander (API) American men and API men who have sex with men (MSM) are still relatively low, current research findings indicate that incidences of unsafe sexual activity may be higher for this group than for any other group. Among the explanations offered to explain the levels of increasing unsafe sex among gay API men have been sexual norms found in Asian cultures, the lack of culturally relevant and/or linguistically appropriate intervention material, lack of integration into the mainstream gay community, and internalized homophobia. What are often ignored in these analyses are the contextual norms in which sexual behavior for gay API men occur. In this article, I develop the argument that racism within the gay community leads to socially and contextually prescribed sexual roles for gay API men that may also contribute to the practice of unsafe sex among this group.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aoki, B., Nagin, C. P., Mo, B., & Ja, D. Y. (1989). AIDS prevention models in Asian American communities. In V. M. Mays, G. W. Albee, & S. F. Schneider (Eds.), Primary prevention of AIDS. (pp. 290–308). Hanover, NH: University of New England Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ayers, T. (1999). China doll: The experience of being a gay Chinese Australian. Journal of Homosexuality, 36, 87–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A., McNally, I., & Petrak, J. (2003). Psychosocial predictors of HIV/STI risk behaviours in a sample of homosexual men. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 79, 142–146.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bérubé, A. (2001). How gay stays white and what kind of white it stays. In B. B. Rasmussen, E. Klinenberg, I. J. Nexica, & M. Wray (Eds.), The making and unmaking of whiteness (pp. 234–265). Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blumstein, P., & Schwartz, P. (1983). American couples: Money, work, and sex. New York: William Morrow.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brooks, R., Rotheram-Borus, M. J., Bing, E. G., Ayala, G., & Henry, C. L. (2003). HIV and AIDS among men of color who have sex with men and men of color who have sex with men and women: An epidemiological profile. AIDS Education and Prevention, 15, 1–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2006). CDC HIV/AIDS fact sheet: HIV/AIDS among Asian and Pacific Islanders. http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/resources/factsheets/PDF/API.pdf. Accessed 15 December 2006.

  • Chng, C. L., & Geliga-Vargas, J. (2000). Ethnic identity, gay identity, sexual sensation seeking and HIV risk taking among multiethnic men who have sex with men. AIDS Education and Prevention, 12, 326–339.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Choi, K. H., Coates, T., Catania, J., & Lew, S. (1995). High HIV risk among gay Asian and Pacific Islander men in San Francisco. AIDS, 9, 306–308.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Choi, K. H., Han, C. S., Hudes, E., & Kegeles, S. (2002). Unprotected sex and associated risk factors among young Asian and Pacific Islander men who have sex with men. AIDS Education and Prevention, 14, 472–481.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Choi, K. H., Kumekawa, E., Dang, Q., Kegeles, S., Hays, R. B., & Stall, R. (1999). Risk and protective factors affecting sexual behavior among young Asian and Pacific Islander men who have sex with men: Implications for HIV prevention. Journal of Sex Education and Therapy, 24, 47–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Choi, K. H., McFarland, W., Neilands, T. B., Nguyne, S., Louie, B., Secura, G., et al. (2004). An opportunity for prevention: Prevalence, incidence, and sexual risk for HIV among young Asian and Pacific Islander men who have sex with men, San Francisco. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 31, 475–480.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Choi, K. H., Yep, G., & Kumekawa, E. (1998). HIV prevention among Asian and Pacific Islander American men who have sex with men: A critical review of theoretical models and directions for future research. AIDS Education and Prevention, 10, 19–30.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dang, A., & Hu, M. (2005). Asian Pacific American lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people: A community portrait. A report from New York’s Queer Asian Pacific Legacy Conference, 2004. New York: National Gay and Lesbian Task Force Policy Institute.

  • Diaz, R. M. (1998). Latino gay men and HIV: Culture, sexuality, and risk behavior. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Do, T., Chen, S., McFarland, W., Secura, G. M., Behel, S. K., MacKellar, D. A., et al. (2005). HIV testing patterns and unrecognized HIV infection among young Asian and Pacific Islander men who have sex with men in San Francisco. AIDS Education and Prevention, 17, 540–554.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frith, H., & Kitzinger, C. (2001). Reformulating sexual script theory: Developing a discursive psychology of sexual negotiation. Theory and Psychology, 11, 209–232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gagnon, J. H. (1977). Human sexualities. New York: Foresman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gagnon, J. H., & Simon, W. (1973). Sexual conduct. London: Hutchinson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gold, R. S., & Skinner, M. J. (1992). Situational factors and thought processes associated with unprotected intercourse in young gay men. AIDS, 6, 1021–1030.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Goldbaum, G., Perdue, T., Wolitski, R., Rietmeijere, C., Hedrich, A., Wood, R., et al. (1998). Differences in risk behavior and sources of AIDS information among gay, bisexual, and straight-identified men who have sex with men. AIDS and Behavior, 2, 13–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Han, C. S. (2006). Geisha of a different kind: Gay Asian men and the gendering of sexual identity. Sexuality & Culture, 10, 3–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hays, R. B., Kegeles, S. M., & Coates, T. J. (1997). Unprotected sex and HIV risk taking among young gay men within boyfriend relationships. AIDS Education and Prevention, 9, 314–329.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hines, A. M., & Caetano, R. (1998). Alcohol and AIDS-related sexual behavior among Hispanics: Acculturation and gender differences. AIDS Education and Prevention, 10, 533–547.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Inouye, J. (1999). The invisible disease: HIV/AIDS in Asian Americans. In L. Zhan (Ed.), Asian voices: Asian and Asian American health educators speak out (pp. 80–105). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kanuha, V. K. (2000). The impact of sexuality and race/ethnicity on HIV/AIDS risk among Asian and Pacific Island American gay and bisexual men in Hawaii. AIDS Education and Prevention, 12, 505–518.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lippa, R. A., & Tan, F. D. (2001). Does culture moderate the relationship between sexual orientation and gender-related personality traits? Cross-Cultural Research, 35, 65–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lloyd, L. S., Faust, M., San Roque, J. S., & Loue, S. (1999). A pilot study of immigration status, homosexual self-acceptance, social support, and HIV reduction in high risk Asian and Pacific Islander men. Journal of Immigrant Health, 1, 115–122.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mao, L., Van de Ven, P., & McCormick, J. (2004). Individualism-collectivism, self-efficacy, and other factors associated with risk taking among gay Asian and Caucasian men. AIDS Education and Prevention, 16, 55–67.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marks, G., Cantero, P. J., & Simoni, J. M. (1998). Is acculturation associated with sexual risk behaviours? An investigation of HIV-positive Latino men and women. AIDS Care, 10, 283–295.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maxwell, J. A. (1992). Understanding validity in qualitative research. Harvard Educational Review, 62, 279–299.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nemoto, T., Operario, D., Soma, T., Bao, D., Vajrabukka, A., & Cristostomo, V. (2003). HIV risk and prevention among Asian/Pacific Islander men who have sex with men: Listen to our stories. AIDS Education and Prevention, 15, 7–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, J. L., Bakeman, R., Stokes, J., & Community Intervention Trial for Youth Study Team. (2001). Racial/ethnic patterns of HIV sexual risk behaviors among young men who have sex with men. Journal of the Gay and Lesbian Medical Association, 5, 155–162.

    Google Scholar 

  • Phua, V. C., & Kaufman, G. (2003). The crossroads of race and sexuality: Date selection among men in internet “personal” ads. Journal of Family Issues, 24, 981–994.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poon, M. K., & Ho, P. T. (2002). A qualitative analysis of cultural and social vulnerabilities to HIV infection among gay, lesbian, and bisexual youth. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services, 14, 43–79.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ratti, R., Bakeman, R., & Peterson, J. L. (2000). Correlates of high-risk sexual behaviour among Canadian men of South Asian and European origin who have sex with men. AIDS Care, 12, 193–202.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sandelowski, M. (2000). Whatever happened to qualitative description? Research in Nursing & Health, 23, 334–340.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sanitioso, R. (1999). A social psychological perspective on HIV/AIDS and gay or homosexually active Asian men. Journal of Homosexuality, 36, 69–85.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, P., & Rutter. V. (1998). The gender of sexuality. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seibt, A. C., Ross, M. W., Freeman, A., Krepcho, M., Hderich, A., Mcalister, A., et al. (1995). Relationship between safe sex and acculturation into the gay subculture. AIDS Care, 7, 85–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stall, R., Barrett, D., Bye, L., Catania, J., Frutchey, C., Henne, J., et al. (1992). A comparison of younger and older gay men’s HIV risk-taking behaviors: The communication technologies 1989 cross-sectional survey. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, 5, 682–687.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stokes, J. P., & Peterson, J. L. (1998). Homophobia, self-esteem and risk for HIV among African American men who have sex with men. AIDS Education and Prevention, 10, 278–292.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Strathdee, S. A., Hogg, R. S., Martindale, S. L., Cornelisse, P. G., Craib, K. J., Montaner, J. S., et al. (1998). Determinants of sexual risk-taking among young HIV-negative gay and bisexual men. Journal of AIDS and Human Retrovirology, 19, 61–66.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Taywaditep, K. J. (2001). Marginalization among the marginalized: Gay men’s anti-effeminacy attitudes. Journal of Homosexuality, 42, 1–28.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wolcott, H. F. (1994). Transforming qualitative data: Description, analysis, and interpretation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, P. A., & Yoshikawa, H. (2004). Experiences of and response to social discrimination among Asian and Pacific Islander gay men: Their relationship to HIV risk. AIDS Education and Prevention, 16, 68–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wong, F. Y., Chng, C. L., Ross, M. W., & Mayer, K. H. (1998). Sexualities as social roles among Asian- and Pacific Islander American gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender individuals: Implications for community-based health education and prevention. Journal of the Gay and Lesbian Medical Association, 2, 157–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wortley, P. L., Metler, R. P., Hu, D. J., & Fleming, P. L. (2000). AIDS among Asian and Pacific Islanders in the United States. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 18, 208–214.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yep, G., Merrigan, G. M., Martin, J. B., Lovaas, K. E., & Cetron, A. C. (2002). HIV/AIDS in Asian and Pacific Islander communities in the United States: A follow-up review and analysis with recommendations for researchers and practitioners. International Quarterly of Community Health Education, 21, 199–227.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yoshikawa, H., Wilson, P. A., Chae, D. H., & Cheng, J. F. (2004). Do family and friendship networks protect against the influence of discrimination on mental health and HIV risk among Asian and Pacific Islander gay men? AIDS Education and Prevention, 16, 84–100.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Chong-suk Han.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Han, Cs. A Qualitative Exploration of the Relationship Between Racism and Unsafe Sex Among Asian Pacific Islander Gay Men. Arch Sex Behav 37, 827–837 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-007-9308-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-007-9308-7

Keywords

Navigation