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A virtual reality paradigm with dynamic scene stimuli for use in memory research

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Abstract

Episodic memory may essentially be memory for one’s place within a temporally unfolding scene from a first-person perspective. Given this, pervasively used static stimuli may only capture one small part of episodic memory. A promising approach for advancing the study of episodic memory is immersing participants within varying scenes from a first-person perspective. We present a pool of distinct scene stimuli for use in virtual environments and a paradigm that is implementable across varying levels of immersion on multiple virtual reality (VR) platforms and adaptable to studying various aspects of scene and episodic memory. In our task, participants are placed within a series of virtual environments from a first-person perspective and guided through a virtual tour of scenes during a study phase and a test phase. In the test phase, some scenes share a spatial layout with studied scenes; others are completely novel. In three experiments with varying degrees of immersion, we measure scene recall, scene familiarity-detection during recall failure, the subjective experience of déjà vu, the ability to predict the next turn on a tour, the subjective sense of being able to predict the next turn on a tour, and the factors that influence memory search and the inclination to generate candidate recollective information. The level of first-person immersion mattered to multiple facets of episodic memory. The paradigm presents a useful means of advancing mechanistic understanding of how memory operates in realistic dynamic scene environments, including in combination with cognitive neuroscience methods such as functional magnetic resonance imaging and electrophysiology.

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Data availability

The data, stimuli, and experiment files, including the stimuli and experiment files for unity, are available on the Open Science Framework: https://osf.io/s68rc/.

Notes

  1. Note that first-person immersion within a scene does not necessarily have to be visual; even without sight, people likely have an ability to process first-person immersion within a place based on non-visual information such as sounds and tactile information. An example includes the role of scenes in déjà vu as experienced by a person with congenital blindness; in this case, the “scene” was auditory and tactile and temporally unfolding (O’Connor & Moulin, 2006).

  2. The building in which the in-person 2D Experiments 1b and 2b were carried out experienced network shortages during the transition from remote work to in-person work at the time that these experiments were carried out. As Experiments 1b and 2b were carried out using Qualtrics over the Internet from the research laboratory, these periodic network disruptions are the likely reason behind why some participants did not finish the experiment.

  3. Data were analyzed using null hypothesis significance testing (NHST) and Bayesian methods of analysis. From the NHST, we report both p values and standard effect sizes, specifically Cohen’s d for repeated-measures and partial eta squared (\({n}_{p}^{2}\); see Lakens, 2013). We also report Bayes factors (BFs) that were computed using JASP and the JZS prior. The strength of evidence provided by the BFs was categorized using the recommendations of Wagenmakers et al. (2007), such that a BF was considered to provide anecdotal evidence (BF = 1–3), substantial evidence (BF = 3–10), strong evidence (BF = 10–30), very strong evidence (BF = 30–100), or extreme evidence (BF > 100) in favor of one hypothesis, either the null or alternative, over the other. In cases where we argue for significant effect, we report BF10, which provides the strength of evidence in favor of the alternative hypothesis over the null. In cases where we argue for a null effect, we report BF01, which provides the strength of evidence in favor of the null hypothesis.

  4. The general phenomenon of sickness that can occur in VR settings can be referenced in the literature by a variety of terms besides cybersickness. Related terms include simulator sickness, VR sickness, or visually induced motion sickness (VIMS). There are also other post hoc questionnaire measures besides the SSQ that we use here, including the VRSQ (Kim et al., 2018), CSQ (Stone, 2017), and MSAQ (Gianaros et al., 2001). In addition, there are other approaches altogether, such as real-time probing of symptomology throughout a study (e.g., Bos et al., 2005, or Keshavarz & Hecht, 2011), or objective psychophysiological indices such as postural sway, heart rate, electrodermal activity, and others (see Chang et al., 2020, for a review).

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Funding

NPP was supported by National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Grant/Award Number: K08 NS105929, R01 NS088748, R21 NS122011, and a CURE Epilepsy Award. DLD’s efforts on this paper were supported in part by funding received from the National Institutes of Health/National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NIH/NINDS, R01NS088748). He also receives funding from additional grants from the NIH (R01MH118514; R01NS110347), as well as Medtronic, Inc. (A1321808).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Neurology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA

    Noah S. Okada, Daniel L. Drane & Nigel P. Pedersen

  2. Department of Neurology, University of California Davis, Sacramento, CA, 95816, USA

    Katherine L. McNeely-White & Nigel P. Pedersen

  3. Department of Psychology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA

    Anne M. Cleary & Brooke N. Carlaw

  4. Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA

    Daniel L. Drane

  5. Department of Neurology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, 98105, USA

    Daniel L. Drane

  6. Grace Center, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85281, USA

    Thomas D. Parsons

  7. Computational Neuropsychology & Simulation (CNS) Laboratory, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85281, USA

    Thomas D. Parsons

  8. Department of Learning Technologies, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, 76203, USA

    Timothy McMahan

  9. Department of Philosophy, Grinnell College, Grinnell, IA, 50112, USA

    Joseph Neisser

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  1. Noah S. Okada
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Correspondence to Noah S. Okada or Nigel P. Pedersen.

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Ethics Approval

All procedures performed in the current experiments were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee of Colorado State University under protocols #20-9755H (Human Memory Processes) and #2722 (Cognitive Processes in Virtual Reality Settings).

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Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Conflict of Interest

Dr. Pedersen is on the Scientific Advisory Board of Dixi Medical, USA, a manufacturer of equipment for epilepsy surgery evaluations, but this is not related to the present work. Dr. Drane receives support from Medtronic, USA, but this is not related to the present work. The other authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Okada, N.S., McNeely-White, K.L., Cleary, A.M. et al. A virtual reality paradigm with dynamic scene stimuli for use in memory research. Behav Res (2023). https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-023-02243-w

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