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Winging it across the Atlantic: Pan Am and Africa, 1940–1990

  • Original Article
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Journal of Transatlantic Studies Aims and scope

Abstract

Pan American Airways (Pan Am) sought toeholds in Africa only after it had secured its prominent position in the Caribbean, Latin America and the Pacific. Then, for 50 years, Pan Am operated a variety of commercial, promotional and protective activities in Africa. Its first experimental flight tested aeronautical facilities and limits. For a year, nominally commercial monthly flights were undertaken, mindful of building stepping stones to the Indian Ocean, of serving long-standing US links with Liberia, and of tapping future continental business potential. Geostrategic considerations propelled Pan Am’s trans-Atlantic and trans-Sahel re-provisioning of Allied armed forces in North Africa in 1941–1942. After the Second World War, Pan Am resumed commercial flights. It targeted modest passenger and freight opportunities along a slender African route network. Modest results and Cold War rivalry in Africa prompted Pan Am to widen its presence there in the 1960s. The US Government pressured it to get more involved in aviation development projects. For its first 30 years, as a giant airline, Pan Am used its organisational and technical capacities to muscle opportunities out of changing and challenging circumstances. In its last two decades in Africa, the iconic but financially and managerially troubled carrier was there by default, mostly working residue. There had been no single, overarching, uncompromising plan. Improvisation was at the heart of Pan Am’s Africa enterprise, a loosely managed, adaptable limb grown by its influential and long-serving founder.

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Notes

  1. John Wilson, ‘Pan American Airways Route 6’, Air Post Journal, May (2012).

  2. Horace M. Brock, Flying the Oceans: A Pilot's Story of Pan Am (New York: Jason Aronson, 1978), 280.

  3. Edward H. McKinley, The Lure of Africa: American Interests in Tropical Africa, 1919-1939 (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1974), 51, 58–59.

  4. ‘Bolama round-up’, New Horizons 11 (8), May 1941, 18-19; Burr W. Leyson, Wings around the World: The Story of American International Air Transport (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1948), 102.

  5. Peter Wingent, Extracts from the Air Ministry Civil Aviation Intelligence Report Summaries, 1939-1945 (Dronfield: West Africa Study Circle, 2010), 207, 209.

  6. On Pan Am’s dismantling German involvement in Latin American airlines, see e.g. Stephen James Randall, ‘Colombia, the United States and Interamerican Aviation Rivalry, 1927–1940’, Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 14, no. 3 (1972): 297–324; David Haglund, ‘'De-Lousing’ SCADTA: The Role of Pan American Airways in U.S. Aviation Diplomacy in Colombia, 1939-1940’, Aerospace Historian 30, no. 3 (1983): 177–188.

  7. Lou A. Phillips, ‘Airports throughout the World’, Pan American World Airways Teacher 7(2), November–December 1950, p. 11; Jenifer Van Vleck, Empire of the Air: Aviation and the American Ascendancy (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 2013), 152–153.

  8. Matthew Josephson, Empire of the Air: Juan Trippe and the Struggle for World Airways (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1944), 167.

  9. ‘Africa and return’, New Horizons 12 (3), December 1941, 11–12.

  10. Pan American World Airways Inc. Records, Special Collections Division, University of Miami Libraries, Coral Gables, Florida [henceforth PAA]: Accession Number 1, Box 54, Folder 4 [henceforth 1/54(4)]: Brief History of Pan American Airways’ Service to Africa, Exhibit #PA-10, CAB Docket No. 1171 (undated).

  11. Margaret Lambie, ‘Aviation Arrangements between the United States and the Union of South Africa’, The Journal of Air Law and Commerce 5, no. 2 (1934): 316–321.

  12. Wingent, Extracts, 40, 196.

  13. PAA, 2/718(17): H. M. Bixby, Memo, 15 January 1941.

  14. William R. Stanley, ‘Trans-South Atlantic Air Link in World War II’, GeoJournal 33, no. 4 (1994): 459–463.

  15. Susan Williams, Spies in the Congo: The Race for the Ore That Built the Atomic Bomb (London: Hurst, 2016), 7, 207.

  16. On the authorship and ‘storyfication’ of Pan Am’s approved history, see Gabrielle Durepos, Albert J. Mills, and Jean Helms Mills, ‘Tales in the Manufacture of Knowledge: Writing a Company History of Pan American World Airways’, Management & Organizational History 3, no. 1 (2008): 63-80; Nicholous Mark Deal, ‘History in the Making: Following the Failed Attempt of Wolfgang Langewiesche in Pan American Airways History Project’, in Connecting Values to Action: Non-Corporeal Actants and Choice, ed. Albert J. Mills and Christopher M. Hartt (Bingley: Emerald, 2019), 37–51.

  17. Robert Daley, An American Saga: Juan Trippe and His Pan Am Empire (New York: Random House, 1980), 311–312.

  18. Henry Ladd Smith, Airways Abroad: The Story of American World Air Routes (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1950), 82.

  19. Wilson, ‘Pan American Airways Route 6’; Wingent, Extracts, 196, 197.

  20. Brock, Flying the Oceans, 253; 260; 267; 270–271; 280.

  21. Wingent, Extracts, 197–198; Wilson, ‘Pan American Airways Route 6’.

  22. PAA, 1/317 (28): Captain William M. Masland’s memoir; Miami News, 6 December 1941; New York Times, 17 December 1941.

  23. Wingent, Extracts, 198.

  24. Alan P. Dobson, FDR and Civil Aviation: Flying Strong, Flying Free (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2011).

  25. Daley, American Saga, 311–312.

  26. Leyson, Wings around the World, 139–149.

  27. Hugh B. Cave, Wings across the World: The Story of the Air Transport Command (New York: Dodd Mead, 1945).

  28. J. M. Lee and Martin Petter, The Colonial Office, War, and Development Policy: Organisation and the Planning of a Metropolitan Initiative, 1939-1945 (London: Institute of Commonwealth Studies, 1982), 102, 103.

  29. Robert Desmond Pearce, The Turning Point in Africa: British Colonial Policy, 1938–1948 (London: Frank Cass, 1982), 28.

  30. e.g. Leyson, Wings around the World, 139–151; Smith, Airways Abroad, 82; John D. Carter, ‘Airway to the Middle East’, in Army Air Forces in World War II. Vol. 7: Services around the World ed. Frank Craven Wesley and James Lea Cate (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958), 46–62; Tom Culbert and Andy Dawson, PanAfrica: Across the Sahara in 1941 with Pan Am (McLean VA: Paladwr Press, 1998).

  31. Great Britain (Ministry of Information), Merchant Airmen (London: HMSO, 1946), 84–107; 136–138; Anon, ‘The Sudan's Service in a Global War: The Story of a Section of the Trans-African Air Ferry Route’, Journal of the Royal African Society 43, no. 170 (1944): 16–20.

  32. Arthur W. Tedder, With Prejudice: The War Memoirs of Marshal of the Royal Air Force, Lord Tedder (London: Cassell, 1966).

  33. R. Earle Anderson, Liberia: America's African Friend (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1952), Chapter 10.

  34. Alfred Lief, The Firestone Story. A History of the Firestone Tire & Rubber Company (New York: Whittlesey House, 1951); Anderson, Liberia, Chapter 10.

  35. Robert Wayne Clower et al., Growth without Development: An Economic Survey of Liberia (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1966).

  36. National Archives, Kew (henceforth NA), AIR 40/2932; AVIA 38/593.

  37. Deborah Wing Ray, ‘Pan American Airways and the Trans-African Base Programme of World War II’ (PhD, New York University, 1973); Deborah Wing Ray, the Takoradi Route: Roosevelt's Pre-War Venture Beyond the Western Hemisphere’, Journal of American History 62, no. 2 (1975): 340–358; Matthew F. Brady, ‘‘War Plan Juan’: The Strategy of Juan Trippe and Pan Am in Latin America and Africa before and During World War 2’ (Montgomery, AL: Air University School of Advanced Air and Space Studies, 2012).

  38. Jonathan Ruano de la Haza, ‘The Rise of the United States' Airfield Empire in Latin America, North Africa, the Middle East, and Southern Asia (1927–1945)’ (PhD, University of Ontario, 2012).

  39. Van Vleck, Empire of the Air, 147.

  40. Stanley, ‘Trans-South Atlantic’.

  41. Robert Lewis McCormack, ‘New Dimension: Air Transport as Development in British West Africa, 1942–1950’ (Paper presented at the Canadian Association of African Studies Conference, Carleton University, Ottawa, 10–13 May 1989).

  42. For full discussion see Alan P. Dobson, Peaceful Air Warfare: The United States, Britain, and the Politics of International Aviation (Oxford: Clarendon, 1991).

  43. NA, FO 954/22a/116: Leo Amery to Anthony Eden, 8 January 1943.

  44. e.g. Josephson, Empire of the Air, 211.

  45. United States. Department of Commerce, ‘Air Cargo Potentials between the United States and South Africa’ (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1944).

  46. PAA, 1/344(1): Civil Aeronautics Board: ‘The South Atlantic Case’. Docket 1171, 8 March 1945, 35 pp.

  47. Smith, Airways Abroad, 286.

  48. In 1946, US direct investments in South Africa had reached US$60 million. Second only to UK trade, imports into South Africa from the US in 1946 were US$228 million; exports to the US were US$151 million: South African American Survey (1947), 122; (1949), 160.

  49. Reginald M. Cleveland, ed. The Aviation Annual of 1947 (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1947), 61–62.

  50. South African-American Survey (1947), 106–107.

  51. PAA, 1/320(18): Francis S. Murphy, n.d. ‘We Fly High to Africa’, unpaginated.

  52. Gabrielle Durepos, Jean Helms Mills, and Albert J. Mills, ‘The Pan American Dream and the Myth of the Pioneer’, in Organizational Epics and Sagas: Tales of Organizations, ed. Monika Kostera (London: Routledge, 2008), 156–168.

  53. Lowell Ragatz, Africa in the Post-War World (New York: Proceedings No. 2, Research Bureau for Post-War Economics, 1944), 14, 16.

  54. PAA, 1/317(28): enclosures, Willis Player (Pan Am Publicity) to Graham Young, 20 March 1948.

  55. See Thomas Borstelmann, Apartheid’s Reluctant Uncle: The United States and Southern Africa in the Early Cold War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993).

  56. See Martin C. Thomas, ‘Innocent Abroad? Decolonisation and US Engagement with French West Africa, 1945–56’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 36, no. 1 (2008): 47–73.

  57. See John Kent, ‘United States Reactions to Empire, Colonialism, and Cold War in Black Africa, 1949–57’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 33, no. 2 (2005): 195–220.

  58. Ritchie Ovendale, The English-Speaking Alliance: Britain, the United States, the Dominions and the Cold War 1945–1951 (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1985), 265.

  59. Indicatively, all thirty passengers and nine crew died when a 60––80 seater Pan Am airliner en route from Johannesburg to New York crashed 45 miles from Roberts Field in mid-June 1951. New York Times, 24 June 1951.

  60. PAA, 1/200(19); 2/144(12); 2/69(5); 2/103(11): Civil Aeronautics Board Accident Investigation Report, 5 December 1951.

  61. Data derived from US Civil Aviation Board, O-D Airline Traffic Survey of Revenue Passengers, 1947–1958. Published data (omitting 1951) are for March and September only; annual data are a simple six-multiple.

  62. PAA 1/87(7): Pan Am Clipper Guide [South Africa], June 1958.

  63. Anthony J. Mayo, Nitin Nohria, and Mark Rennella, Entrepreneurs, Managers, and Leaders: What the Airline Industry Can Teach Us About Leadership (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), 102.

  64. Brock, Flying the Oceans, 261.

  65. Ibid., 273–274.

  66. James Hunter Meriwether, Proudly We Can Be Africans: Black Americans and Africa, 1935–1961 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 69–73; Francis Njubi Nesbitt, Race for Sanctions: African Americans Against Apartheid, 1946-1994 (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2004), 41.

  67. Pan Am advertisements, The Times (London), 15 August 1953, p. 3; 29 June 1955, p. 9.

  68. PAA, 2/237(15): Brock to Vice-President Dean, 3 June 1948.

  69. PAA, 2/237(15): Henry J. Friendly, to Pan Am Vice-President Towers, 8 July 1949; Franklin Gledhill, Pan Am Vice-President, to The Liberia Company, New York, 24 June 1949; J. A. Mannion to Towers, 25 July 1949. Edward R. Stettinius, briefly US Lend-Lease administrator, then Secretary of State, and Juan Trippe’s father-in-law, organised and part-funded the Liberia Company and its 25,000 acre concession in 1947. Trippe was President of the Company for a time; it was Pan Am’s sales agent in Liberia. Clower et al., Growth without Development, 172.

  70. PAA, 2/682(21): Paul M. Strieffler, Assistant to Pan Am Vice-President, to W. K. Trimble, 1 September 1955; to Pan Am Executive Vice-President, 28 December 1955.

  71. PAA, 2/682(21): Strieffler to Vice-President Pryor, 25 January 1954.

  72. John Gunther, Inside Africa (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1955), 832, 850–852.

  73. PAA, 2/682(30): Trimble to Strieffler, 31 July 1954; Strieffler to Division Operations Manager, 12 July 1954.

  74. PAA, 2(682/21): various correspondence.

  75. Betty Stettinius Trippe, The Diary and Letters of Betty Stettinius Trippe, 1925-1968 (privately published, 1982), 298.

  76. Marilyn Bender and Selig Altschul, The Chosen Instrument: Pan Am, Juan Trippe, the Rise and Fall of an American Entrepreneur (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1982), 441.

  77. John Kent, ‘The United States and the Decolonization of Black Africa’, in The United States and Decolonisation: Power and Freedom, ed. David Ryan and Victor Pungong (London: Palgrave 2000), 168–187; Piero Gleijeses, Conflicting Missions: Havana, Washington, and Africa, 1959–1976 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 195.

  78. Marc Dierikx, Clipping the Clouds: How Air Travel Changed the World (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2008), 80–84.

  79. United States. Department of Commerce, ‘World Survey of Civil Aviation: Africa’ (Washington D.C.1960).

  80. Philip E. Muehlenbeck, Betting on the Africans: John F. Kennedy’s Courting of African Nationalist Leaders (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 208–213; Philip E. Muehlenbeck, Czechoslovakia in Africa, 1945–1968 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), Chapter 5.

  81. On key actors and episodes, see Elizabeth Schmidt, Foreign Intervention in Africa: From the Cold War to the War on Terror (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013).

  82. Michael Clough, Free at Last? U.S. Policy toward Africa and the End of the Cold War (New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1992), 7.

  83. PAA, 2/245(25): Weekly Traffic Report ended 23 December 1961.

  84. PAA, 2/723(3): Survey of Capacity, Staff and Seat Factors; R. G. Ferguson to N. P Blake, 24 December 1963.

  85. Dierikx, Clipping the Clouds, 88.

  86. PAA, 2/723(1): Paddy Bell to John Shannon, Vice-President, Overseas Division, 23 March 1963.

  87. PAA, 1/179(1): Herbert F. Milley, Vice-President, Pan Am Overseas Division (Traffic & Sales), to JTS, 20 April 1961.

  88. PAA, 2/273(2): Alan S. Boyd, Chair, CAB, to Russell B. Adams, Pan Am Vice-President, 27 June 1962.

  89. Peter Svik, ‘East–West Relations in the Civil Aviation Sector between 1945 and 1963’, Journal of Transatlantic Studies 13, no. 3 (2015): 263–278.

  90. PAA, 2/723(2): D. Browne to John C. Leslie, 27 September 1962.

  91. PAA, 2/723(2): Harold E. Gray to Trippe, 8 June 1962.

  92. PAA, 2/273(12): Pan American World Airways, Confidential Proposal: ‘United States Participation in the Development of Aviation in Africa’, 24 July 1962.

  93. Jeffrey A. Engel, Cold War at 30,000 Feet: The Anglo-American Fight for Aviation Supremacy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 258. On the Afghanistan case see Jenifer Van Vleck, ‘An Airline at the Crossroads of the World: Ariana Afghan Airlines, Modernization, and the Global Cold War’, History and Technology 25, no. 1 (2009): 3–24.

  94. PAA, 2/272(2): Summary of meeting, 4 August 1962. See also NA, FO 371/165223: State Department reports, 18 May, 17 September 1962.

  95. PAA, 2/723(2): Norman P. Blake to Theodore C. Achilles, 18 May 1962.

  96. PAA, 2/463(15): ‘The Pan American Technical Assistance Program: A Brief Synopsis’. September 1972.

  97. PAA, 2/469(2): A Proposal for Technical Assistance and Training for Air Congo, February 1970.

  98. PAA, 2/235(3): undated ‘Opening Remarks’ by Joseph F. Gatt; PAA, 2/770(14): Abe Sevinch to Claude Hutt, 2 February 1975.

  99. PAA, 2/463(27): Zaire—Wallace Report and Audit 1971 to 1973, 26 February 1974.

  100. PAA, 2/770(14): G. Erskine Rice to Senior Vice-President J. T. Flanagan, 20 August 1975.

  101. PAA, 2/770(14): Erskine Rice to Joseph Gatt (Project Director, Technical Assistance Programme) and Lou Cecchet (Director, Zaire/FIH), 26 September 1975.

  102. PAA, 2/770(14): Erskine Rice to Deane R. Hinton, 7 April 1975..

  103. PAA, 2/326(7): Board of Directors Trips—1964, Africa.

  104. PAA, 1/205(4): Aviation Daily, 10 March 1964, p. 57; 30 April 1964, p 382.

  105. PAA, 1/205(4): Aviation Daily, 5 May 1964, p. 25.

  106. PAA, 1/205(4): Aviation Daily, 30 July 1964, p. 168; 23 September 1964, p. 130.

  107. James L. Gormly, ‘Opening and Closing Doors: US Postwar Aviation Policy, 1943-1963’, Journal of Transatlantic Studies 13, no. 3 (2015): 251–262.

  108. PAA, 2/644(13): Russell B. Adams, Pan Am Vice-President, to Joseph C. Watson, Director, CAB Bureau of International Affairs, 7 August 1961; Adams to Frank E. Loy, Department of State, 22 April, 7 October 1968.

  109. Mitch Lerner, ‘Climbing Off the Back Burner: Lyndon Johnson’s Soft Power Approach to Africa’, Diplomacy & Statecraft 22, no. 4 (2011): 578–607.

  110. Mayo, Nohria, and Rennella, Entrepreneurs, Managers, and Leaders, 85.

  111. Bender and Altschul, Chosen Instrument, 477.

  112. Erik Benson, ‘The Chosen Instrument? Reconsidering the Relationship between Pan American and the Government’, Essays in Economic and Business History 22, no. (2004): 97-110.

  113. Hans Heymann, ‘Air Transport and Economic Development: Some Comments on Foreign Aid Programs’, American Economic Review 52, no. 2 (1962): 386–395; Hans Heymann, Civil Aviation and U.S. Foreign Aid: Purposes, Pitfalls, and Problems for U.S. Policy (Report No. R-424-RC) (Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation, 1964); Frank E. Loy, The United States Program of Aviation Assistance to Less-Developed Countries (Washington, D.C.: Department of State, Agency for International Development, 1964).

  114. Additions to the African network were Conakry (July 1963), Tripoli (August 1965), Nairobi (October 1965), Entebbe (February 1966), Dar es Salaam (1966), Rabat (non-stop, September 1968).

  115. PAA 2/420(18): Coupon Traffic, 1964-1968. It is not clear if coupons were for single or return journeys. The data imply that Pan Am did not carry passengers for just intermediate stages along its route.

  116. Lerner, ‘Climbing’; Fred Marte, Political Cycles in International Relations: The Cold War and Africa 1945–1990 (Amsterdam: Vrije Universiteit Press, 1994), 89.

  117. PAA, 1/344(2): International Civil Aviation Organization, ‘Development of International Air Passenger Travel—Africa’ (Montreal, 1967), pp. 86.

  118. George Weeks, ‘Wings of Change: A Report on the Progress of Civil Aviation in Africa’, Africa Report 10, no. 2 (1965): 14–40.

  119. PAA, 2/453(1): Africa Notes – Trip Report, 30 January 1967.

  120. Brock, Flying the Oceans, 254.

  121. e.g. Africa Report, August & October 1965, March 1967.

  122. PAA, 1/88(6): 1960 Adventures in Education: a Scholar's Guide to Study and Educational Travel Abroad via Pan American.

  123. PAA, 2/611(9): Guidebooks and ephemera; Charles A. Cabell and David St. Clair, Safari: Pan Am's Guide to Hunting with Gun and Camera Round the World (New York: Pan American Airways, 1968).

  124. PAA, 2/723(2): Russell B. Adams to Philip H. Trezise, US Acting-Assistant Secretary of State for Economic Affairs, 9 May 1962.

  125. PAA, 2/420(2): Memo from Norman P. Blake on visit to East Africa, 18 October–5 November 1964.

  126. Philip M. Kaiser, Journeying Far and Wide: A Political and Diplomatic Memoir (New York: Charles Scribner, 1992), 204–205.

  127. Dierikx, Clipping the Clouds, 81-82. New York Times, 10 November 1966.

  128. PAA, 2/501(19): Memorandum on Nigeria Airways – Tribunal of Inquiry, 14 February 1967.

  129. PAA, 2/723(3): Tom Carter, Civil Air Attaché (Lagos) to B. B. Reece, 12 July 1968.

  130. For a recent study see Lise Namikas, Battleground Africa: Cold War in the Congo, 1960-1965 (Washington D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2013). On Soviet Bloc aviation and the Congo see Sergey Mazov, A Distant Front in the Cold War: The USSR in West Africa and the Congo, 1956-1964 (Washington D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2010), 163–167.

  131. Chicago Tribune, 31 December 1965; NA, FO 1100/48: UK Department of Economic Affairs, P.O.L. Supplies–Zambia, 1 April 1966; FO 1100/49: Ibid, British Airlifts into Zambia, 29 April 1966. Pan Am’s great rival, TWA, also participated.

  132. Joseph F. Hood, Skyway Round the World: The Story of the First Global Airway (New York: Chares Scribner, 1968), 177.

  133. Simon Bennett, ‘Victim of History? The Impact of Pan Am's ‘Imperialistic' Past on Its Capacity to Adjust to Deregulation’, Risk Management 4, no. 4 (2002): 23–43; Gabrielle Durepos, Jean Helms Mills, and Albert J. Mills, ‘Flights of Fancy: Myth, Monopoly and the Making of Pan American Airways’, Journal of Management History 14, no. 2 (2008): 116–127; Mayo, Nohria, and Rennella, Entrepreneurs, Managers, and Leaders, 85–107.

  134. Gleijeses, Conflicting Missions, 382.

  135. Clough, Free at Last?, 16.

  136. Bender and Altschul, Chosen Instrument, 15.

  137. Joanna L. Grisinger, ‘“South Africa is the Mississippi of the World”: Anti-Apartheid Activism through Domestic Civil Rights Law’, Law and History Review (2019): 1–39.

  138. Howard University, Manuscript Division, Charles Diggs Collection, 201/17; 208/36; 224/9; 357/22.

  139. PAA, 2/766(11): Thomas J. Flanagan to W. T. Seawell et al, 12 & 26 August 1976; Edward D. Perkins to Erskine Rice, 12 August 1976; Meeting note by Erskine Rice, 21 September 1976.

  140. Pan Am Press Release #120370.

  141. PAA, 1/208(6): various items.

  142. PAA, 2/766(10): Charles. G. Gilbert, Marketing Director, to Vice-President, Airline Service, 5 March 1974; ‘Proposal to the Government of Egypt for the Development for a Master Plan for the Expansion of the Hospitality Industry, Egypt, 1974–1975’; Erskine Rice to Flanagan, Senior Vice-President, International Affairs, 6 February 1975.

  143. See Nesbitt, Race for Sanctions.

  144. Herman J. Cohen, Intervening in Africa: Superpower Peacemaking in a Troubled Continent (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2000), 218.

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Acknowledgements

A Research Incentive Grant from the National Research Foundation of South Africa enabled work in the Pan Am archives at the University of Miami Library and in the African Studies and Transportation libraries at Northwestern University. The Miami research was also supported by a Dave Abrams and Gene Banning Grant from the Pan Am Historical Foundation. The research also drew on the excellent holdings of the British Library and the Senate House Library at the University of London. Marc Dierikx read two drafts closely and gave incisive comments. Nicholas Grant generously shared his material from the Charles Diggs Collection and raised intriguing questions after reading the typescript.

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    Gordon Pirie

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Pirie, G. Winging it across the Atlantic: Pan Am and Africa, 1940–1990. J Transatl Stud 19, 72–98 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1057/s42738-020-00064-9

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