Introduction

Early childhood is a crucial developmental stage that establishes the basis for children’s academic and behavioral competence, allowing them to navigate school readiness’s academic and social requirements in later years (Winsler et al. 2008; Grabell et al. 2016). The development of children follows a pattern based on their genetic potential and the effects of their surrounding environment (Kim-Cohen et al. 2004; Venetsanou and Kambas, 2009). Within environmental effects, the home-rearing environment (HRE) quality significantly affects children’s cognitive, emotional, social, and physical development (Anme et al. 2013). The HRE refers to the degree of organization in children’s environments, considering human and physical resources, mainly parents, and the quality of close interactions in children’s surroundings (Anme et al. 2013). Numerous studies have shown that sustained positive family relationships are critical for children’s well-adjusted and successful achievers (Buek, 2019; Liu et al. 2024). Conversely, the negative child-rearing environment, such as adverse parent-child interactions, poor parenting practices, and marital adjustment, is detrimental to children’s development (Sanders and Turner, 2018). However, as digital technology becomes increasingly integrated into the daily lives of families, the role of screen time exposure in mediating the association between the HRE and children’s competence deserves in-depth investigation.

Screen time exposure in preschoolers may also impact their cognitive and behavioral competence. Over the past ten years, devices with screens such as televisions, tablets, computers, and smartphones have become a regular part of young children’s lives (Domoff et al. 2019). Research has indicated that excessive use of screens is positively related to children’s social or behavioral problems (Hu et al. 2018; Hutton et al. 2019; Xie et al. 2024). Additionally, children’s screen time may be the mechanism by which the quality of the child-rearing environment predicts cognitive and behavioral competency (Domoff et al. 2020). As rooted in the Bioecological theory, the family is an essential proximal microsystem for young children’s early learning and development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Children’s screen time exposure and development are directly tied to their family environment (e.g., Böcking and Böcking, 2009) because most screen time for children happens at home (Tandon et al. 2011). Although some studies have investigated the link between the child‑rearing environment and screen usage and development in children respectively (Adelantado-Renau et al. 2019; Detnakarintra et al. 2019; Xie et al. 2024), screen time’s indirect roles in the association between child-rearing environment and child development are little explored. Understanding the indirect role of screen time in the home environment is crucial because it may help shed light on how family dynamics impact a child’s academic and behavioral competence. Due to young children being at risk for adverse development outcomes, a more profound knowledge of family screen exposure is necessary (Hyde et al. 2012). This study explores the association between the Chinese child-rearing environment and their development. More specifically, we wanted to explore if screen time exposure could serve as a mechanism to connect the HRE to the cognitive and behavioral competence of children. We expect to potentially provide directions for future intervention by examining the indirect effect of the child-rearing environment on children’s healthy development.

Home-rearing environment and preschoolers’ academic and behavioral competence

As the primary and most significant agent of socialization, the family wields significant influence and profoundly impacts a child’s development. Bioecological theory suggests that proximal processes consistent interaction patterns, are essential in promoting human development (Merçon‐Vargas et al. 2020). The family is identified as a key proximal microsystem that significantly influences early learning and development in children (Bronfenbrenner and Morris, 2006). Furthermore, the theoretical framework of the childcare environment highlights that the HRE is influenced by the “bidirectional interaction between parents and child “ as well as their “interaction with the environment” (Anme, 2004). Anme et al. (2013) proposed that the childcare environment encompasses various aspects, including respect for children’s autonomy, caregiver interaction, minimal restriction, safety, stimulating learning materials, social engagement, and adequate support from a spouse or others. Among these, parent-child interaction and participation in social environments are considered the most effective (Anme et al. 2013). Previous studies have indicated that high parental involvement is linked to reduced children’s psychological and behavioral problems, enabling them to attain better academic outcomes and positive development (Cohen et al. 2020; Lawson and Alameda-Lawson, 2012). For instance, parent-child reading books can enhance children’s language development and early literacy abilities (Knauer et al. 2020). Close and emotionally warm parent-child connections promote contact between parents and children, which helps children develop self-control (Morris et al. 2017).

Furthermore, the quality of a family’s marital relationships can indicate how well a child will develop self-control and predict co-parenting effectiveness (Hosokawa and Katsura, 2017). Marital conflict can create a hostile and aggressive atmosphere for children, lowering their self-esteem and putting them at risk for adjustment problems (Hosokawa and Katsura, 2017). Also, parental monitoring and supervision can help to lessen children’s externalizing behavior problems (van Prooijen et al. 2018). Therefore, the HRE’s influence on preschoolers’ academic and behavioral competence cannot be understated. Parents, caregivers, and educators play pivotal roles in creating an environment that nurtures a child’s cognitive, social, and emotional growth. A supportive home environment, characterized by active parental involvement, access to educational resources, a nurturing atmosphere, and consistent routines, provides a strong foundation for a child’s academic and behavioral development (Biersteker and Kvalsvig, 2007). Thus, this study attempts to integrate the theoretical perspectives of the Bioecological theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) and the childcare environment framework (Anme, 2004) to understand further the relationship between the HRE and preschoolers’ development and potential mechanisms.

Screen time and academic and behavioral competence in preschoolers

Preschoolers have increasingly had access to screens as electronic devices have become popular (Domoff et al. 2019). Screen time refers to how long children are exposed to electronic screens, including TV, smartphones, tablets, computers, or video games (Christakis and Garrison, 2009). Previous research has demonstrated that devices with screen use occupy much of children’s recreational time (Arundell et al. 2016). However, excessive screen time during childhood was typically viewed as unhealthy media use, resulting in problems with the children’s academic, behavioral, or social development (Hu et al. 2018; Hutton et al. 2019). For instance, excessive screen time has been linked to both short- and long-term harmful effects on children’s ability to self-regulate (Cerniglia et al. 2020). Studies with children aged 2–4 revealed that a decrease in media exposure during toddlerhood was linked to improved self-regulation by the age of 4 (Cliff et al. 2018). Additionally, research has shown a connection between higher screen time and poorer cognitive function, including literacy, math, and short-term memory (Hutton et al. 2019; Hyde et al. 2012; Tomopoulos et al. 2010). Szczuka et al. (2020) examined the link between sedentary behavior (e.g., excessive screen time) and self-efficacy, revealing that high screen time correlates with reduced self-efficacy. There is also evidence of a significant positive correlation between poor conduct and smartphone addiction inclinations in children aged 1–6 (Cho and Lee, 2017). Even after controlling for confounding characteristics, children who use smartphones and tablets are more at risk of displaying behavioral and emotional problems (Lin et al. 2020). Potential explanations for these negative effects include decreased parent-child language interactions and reduced creative activities within the home (Mendelsohn et al. 2008; Kirkorian et al. 2009).

Children’s screen time and learning and development are also closely linked to their home environment. According to the Bioecological theory, the home environment is an essential proximal microsystem for young children’s learning and development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). In addition, building on Bioecological theory, Domoff et al. (2020) proposed the Interactional Theory of Childhood Problematic Media (IT-CPU) that emphasizes proximal processes play a crucial role in affecting the patterns of persistent children’s problematic screen device usage. Specifically, the enduring and reciprocal interaction between children, parents, and screen devices forms the fundamental proximal processes. These processes, molded by a blend of environmental and biological elements, can exert favorable or detrimental effects on the child’s overarching developmental trajectory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Domoff et al. 2020). Studies have shown that the family environment can affect how screen usage affects children’s behavior and development (Böcking and Böcking, 2009). For instance, positive parenting practices can reduce high-risk children’s developmental dangers of screen exposure (Linebarger et al. 2014). In turn, children who experience negative parenting and excessive screen time have poor developmental results (Radesky and Christakis, 2016). Similarly, several studies highlighted the HRE in influencing how children interact with screen media and reducing adverse developmental screen time effects (Böcking and Böcking, 2009; Radesky and Christakis, 2016; Tandon et al. 2011). Blankson et al. (2015) found that screen time negatively affects 5-year-old children’s vocabulary and self-regulation. Nevertheless, the adverse effects associated with lower home learning quality and reduced social interactions due to screen time are mitigated when family cognitive activities, such as parent-child reading, are considered. Despite this, research exploring the mechanisms linking HRE, screen time exposure, and children’s academic and behavioral competence remains limited, particularly in the Chinese context.

The current study

Although prior studies have indicated the association between HRE and academic and behavioral competence in children, the indirect role of children’s screen time exposure in these relations is still unclear. Furthermore, prior research investigating the relationship between screen time and children’s development in the Chinese context has primarily focused on elementary and secondary students (Cao et al. 2011; Jiang et al. 2014). Surprisingly, studies examining screen time exposure linked to young children’s academic and behavioral abilities are lacking (Xie et al. 2024). The evidence suggests that children are significantly influenced by their home environment (Anme et al. 2013; Buek, 2019). The possibility of establishing a link between home environment, screen time, and children’s achievement is likely greater for younger children than for older children. Therefore, this study examines the relationship between HRE, screen time, and children’s development. By examining the indirect role of screen time in the association between HRE and child development, we hope to provide potential directions for future family interventions in child development. This study aims to address the following questions:

  1. (1)

    Does the HRE relate positively to children’s language and cognitive abilities, self-regulation, and self-efficacy as well as negatively to problem behavior?

  2. (2)

    Is the HRE directly associated with children’s language and cognitive abilities, self-regulation, self-efficacy, and problem behavior?

  3. (3)

    Does screen time play an indirect role in the relationship between HRE and children’s language and cognitive abilities, self-regulation, self-efficacy, and problem behaviors?

The current study hypothesizes that (a) higher levels of HRE positively predict preschoolers’ language and cognitive abilities, self-efficacy, and self-regulation as well as negatively with problem behavior; (b) the quality of the HRE is directly associated with preschoolers’ language and cognitive abilities, self-efficacy, and self-regulation, and problem behavior; (c) the quality of the HRE is negatively associated with screen time, which in turn positively predicts children’s problem behaviors and negatively predicts their language and cognitive abilities, self-efficacy, and self-regulation.

Method

Samples

Using a stratified random sample method, we chose three regions (Fujian, Sichuan, and Xinjiang) to reflect varying socioeconomic development levels based on factors such as geographic location, openness, and per capita GDP. Five preschools were randomly selected in each area, resulting in 15 preschools. Then, we randomly selected 60 children in each preschool, resulting in an overall sample of 900 child-parent dyads for inclusion in this study. The questionnaires will be excluded if completed in less than 780 s or only partially completed. After meeting these criteria, 825 questionnaires were kept for further examination. All the sampled parents signed the consent form. The descriptive statistics of the sample of this study are shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Descriptive statistics.
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Procedure

Before beginning this investigation, the first author’s academic institution thoroughly evaluated the research protocol in terms of ethics. After receiving approval from the preschools, an electronic brochure, which included a consent document and an overview of the study program, was sent to the parents of each child. All children’s parents volunteered to complete and return an online questionnaire via an online platform (Wenjuan Xing), including demographic information (e.g., child’s age, sex, socioeconomic status) and a series of questionnaires measuring the HRE, children’s screen time, and children’s academic and behavioral competence. Only one parent in each family was asked to complete the questionnaire.

Measures

Evaluation of home environment

The Index of Child Care Environment (ICCE) was utilized to assess the home-rearing environment (HRE; Anme et al. 2013). The ICCE consists of 13 items organized into four dimensions: human stimulation (e.g., “How often do you read to your child? “), social stimulation (e.g., “How often do you go to parks with your child? “), avoidance of restriction (e.g., “How many times did you spank your child?”), and social support (e.g., “Does someone help you care for your child?”). The ICCE was strongly associated with the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME), which has been employed in home environment assessment studies worldwide. The correlation coefficients between the total score and each subscale of the ICCE and the HOME were 0.76, 0.78, 0.82, 0.82, and 1.00, respectively, indicating high reliability (α = 0.891; Anme et al. 2013). The ICCE is a well-established and reliable screening tool, as previous studies have demonstrated its positive correlations with child development outcomes (Anme et al. 2013).

Children’s screen time

The children’s family screen time exposure was assessed using global estimates of media usage (Vandewater and Lee, 2009). The survey consisted of two sections with a total of six questions. Four questions were in the first section, and the average number of hours children used screens per day in the past week, such as tablets, smartphones, computers, and TVs, were collected. The two questions in the second section measure how much time kids spend engaging in screen-based activities like playing video games on interactive screens like tablets and smartphones. The parent was asked to answer this questionnaire on a 7-point scale from 1 (zero hours) to 7 (more than 6 h). The standardized scores (z-score) of 6 items were averaged to determine how much time kids spent on screens. A higher score shows more time spent utilizing the screen.

Language and cognition

Children’s language and cognitive abilities were measured using the Literacy and Cognition subscale of the Chinese Version of the Early Development Instrument (CEDI; Ip et al. 2013). The CEDI was adapted from the Early Development Instrument (EDI), which evaluated children’s readiness for school in Canada (Janus and Offord, 2007). The Literacy and Cognition scale measured children’s interest and memory, numeracy skills, and primary and more complex literacy. The subscale contains 39 items and is scored on a 2-point scale: the response is “Yes” if a child masters a skill and “No” otherwise. Cronbach’s α for the CEDI’s Literacy and Cognition subscale in Chinese contexts is 0.90, indicating strong internal consistency (Ip et al. 2013). For this subscale, the current study’s Cronbach’s α was 0.95.

Children’s self-efficacy

The Chinese version of the General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSES; Cheung and Sun, 1999) was used to measure the self-efficacy of children. The GSES had good construct validity, test-retest reliability (infraclass correlation coefficient = 0.83), and good internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = 0.87) in the Chinese setting (Wang et al. 2021). This scale contained 10 items, each rated on a Likert-type 4-point scale ranging from 1 (not at all true) to 4 (exactly true). A mean value is calculated from the scores of the 10 items to measure a person’s perceived general self-efficacy. The total scale’s Cronbach’s α in this study was 0.85, indicating excellent internal consistency.

Children’s self-regulation

Children’s self-regulation was assessed using the Children’s Self-regulation Questionnaire (CFQ; Yang and Dong, 2005). This scale consists of 22 items, and each item was rated by the participating parents on a 5-point Likert scale, with 1 representing never and 5 representing always. Children with higher overall ratings have higher degrees of self-regulation. According to Huang and Yang (2015), the CFQ exhibited high internal consistency in Chinese settings, as indicated by Cronbach’s α coefficient of 0.80. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the scale in this study was 0.85, which indicates that the scale is reliable.

Children’s problem behavior

Partents’ reports of preschoolers’ problem behavior were assessed using the children’s problem behavior subscale of the Chinese version of Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ; Mink et al. 2020). The problem behaviors subscale has 20 items, including four dimensions that engage with emotional, behavioral, hyperactive, and peer problems. The total problems score is calculated by adding all dimension scores, with higher scores indicating more severe emotional and behavioral conditions. Parents reported the extent to which their children exhibited problem behavior (e.g., “often fight with other children or bully them”) over the last six months on a 3-point Likert scale. The previous study reported that the SDQ scale has relatively high validity and reliability in Hong Kong (Mink et al. 2020). The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the current study’s problem behavior subscales was 0.72.

Data analyses

Three steps of analysis were taken with the data. First, descriptive statistics and correlations of variables were examined, and an estimate of the internal consistency of the measures used Cronbach’s α. We also examined the normality assumption with skewness and kurtosis scores. Second, hierarchical multiple regression was employed using SPSS26 to regress the HRE on children’s academic and behavioral competence while controlling for child demographics (i.e., age, gender, and SES). Third, we employed structural equation modeling (SEM) to examine the hypothesized indirect effect model (see Fig. 1). In this model, screen time plays an indirect role in the relationship between the HRE and children’s academic and behavioral competencies. According to Hayes (2017), bootstrap confidence intervals are better than standard theory tests for inference regarding indirect effects. Thus, the indirect effects were tested using a bootstrapping-based methodology. We calculated point estimates and 95% bias-corrected bootstrap confidence intervals using 5000 bootstrap samples to determine the indirect effects. The indirect effects are supported when 0 is not between the lower and upper bound of the bias-corrected confidence interval for the indirect effects. Based on the results of past studies, the variable of children’s demographics (i.e., age, gender, and SES) was added in all models as these variables are potentially linked to children’s academic and behavioral competence (Li et al., 2022; Wei et al., 2016). All descriptive statistics and correlation analyses were conducted in SPSS26. The SEM was conducted in Mplus 8.3 using the full-information maximum likelihood (FIML) method to handle missing data.

Fig. 1: The statistical model with standardized path coefficients.
figure 1

Note. The children’s age, gender, and family SES were controlled in the model. ***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05.

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Results

Descriptive statistics

Descriptive statistics for the study variables and participant demographics are shown in Table 1. Preliminary analysis revealed that all variables had a relatively normal distribution (skewness and kurtosis < |2|, see Table 1). Table 2 displays the bivariate correlation values for the crucial variables of the study. The results indicated that the HRE negatively correlated with screen time and problem behavior. In contrast, with a moderate effect size, it positively correlated with language and cognitive skills, self-regulation, and self-efficacy. Also, there was a significant association between screen time, language and cognitive skills, self-efficacy, self-regulation, and problem behavior, ranging from small to moderate effect size.

Table 2 Correlations among key variables.
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The direct role of the home-rearing environment

We employed hierarchical multiple regression to examine the direct association between the HRE and children’s academic and behavioral competencies. The results of the analyses are shown in Table 3. The HRE was significantly linked to children’s language and cognitive skills (β = 0.25, p < 0.001), showing that children with a higher quality of home-raising may exhibit better academic abilities. Similarly, after controlling for all the covariates, the HRE also significantly predicted children’s self-efficacy (β = 0.25, p < 0.001), self-regulation (β = 0.24, p < 0.001), and problem behavior (β = −0.19, p < 0.001), indicated that children with the better HRE were more likely to show higher levels of self-regulation, self-efficacy, and fewer problem behaviors.

Table 3 Regression analysis to predict child outcomes.
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The indirect role of screen time between the home-rearing environment and children’s development

After controlling the variates of children’s age, gender, and SES, we explore the direct and indirect effects of HRE on children’s academic and behavioral competence. Structural equitation modeling results showed that the HRE was a significant predictor of screen time (β = −0.19, p < 0.001), and screen time was a significant predictor of children’s language and cognitive skills (β = −0.10, p < 0.01), self-efficacy (β = −0.07, p < 0.05), self-regulation (β = −0.14, p < 0.001). However, after controlling for the HRE, screen time did not significantly predict children’s problem behavior (β = 0.05, p = 0.19). Furthermore, after taking screen time into account, the HRE significantly predicted children’s language and cognitive skills (β = 0.23, p < 0.001), self-efficacy (β = 0.24, p < 0.001), self-regulation (β = 0.22, p < 0.001), and problem behavior (β = −0.18, p < 0.001) (The detail see Fig. 1).

The bootstrap-corrected confidence intervals for the indirect role of the HRE through screen time confirmed significant indirect effects on children’s language and cognitive skills (effect = 0.009; bootstrap 95% CI = [0.003, 0.017]), self-regulation (effect = 0.006; bootstrap 95% CI = [0.003, 0.011]), and self-efficacy (effect = 0.004; bootstrap 95% CI = [0.000, 0.008]). However, the HRE showed no significant indirect effects through screen time on children’s problem behavior (effect = −0.018; bootstrap 95% CI = [−0.050, 0.008]), indicating that screen time did not play an indirect role between the HRE and children’s problem behavior (See Table 4).

Table 4 Mediating effects of involvement on child outcomes.
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Discussion

The relationship between the HRE and children’s development has long been a focus of educational psychology and family research. Early academic and behavioral competence is crucial in shaping children’s future learning and social adaptation (Bakken et al. 2017). Children’s screen time has become an increasingly important aspect of the family environment in today’s digital age (Domoff et al. 2019). Thus, this study investigated the relationship between the HRE and children’s academic and behavioral competence in the Chinese context and the indirect role of screen time in this relationship. The results of this study partially support the hypothesis that screen time plays an indirect role in the relationship between home-rearing environment and children’s outcomes. This finding provided insights into how parents and educators can make informed decisions regarding screen time management in the home. We also hope to provide practical implications for fostering healthy development and supporting preschoolers’ academic and behavioral competence within the changing landscape of the present family context.

The home-rearing environment as a predictor of preschoolers’ academic and behavioral competence

This study discovered a positive and direct correlation between the HRE and preschoolers’ language and cognitive abilities, self-regulation, and self-efficacy. Conversely, a negative and direct link between the HRE and problem behavior was found. These relations supported the Bioecological theory (Bronfenbrenner and Morris, 2006) and theoretical framework of the childcare environment (Anme, 2004). First, in terms of the HRE and preschoolers’ language and cognition, the results emphasize the critical role parents and caregivers play in nurturing the cognitive development of young children. This is in line with the Bioecological theory proposed by Bronfenbrenner and Morris (2006), which emphasizes the significance of the microsystem, including family and home environments, in influencing child development. It emphasizes the necessity for interventions and support programs that empower parents to establish a stimulating and enriching home environment, thereby promoting language and cognitive skills in their children (Biersteker and Kvalsvig, 2007; Cohen et al. 2020).

Similarly, the relationship between the HRE and children’s self-regulation and self-efficacy suggested that the family environment is crucial in fostering children’s emotional and social development (Li et al. 2022; Zhu et al. 2022). These findings confirm Anme’s (2004) theoretical framework of the childcare environment, which emphasizes the need for a caring and supportive home context to develop self-regulatory abilities and a sense of self-efficacy in young children. For example, to practice good self-control, a child must learn which behaviors to activate and which desire to repress. Thus, the consistency of the parent-child relationship is crucial in children’s self-control development because this concept is mainly learned from parents (Ng-Knight and Schoon, 2020). These findings suggest the importance of parenting programs that stress the development of these abilities and attitudes in children, which can have long-term positive consequences on their overall well-being and success. Furthermore, the negative association between the HRE and problem behavior indicated that a supportive and enriching home environment may be protective against developing behavioral problems in preschoolers. Children in higher cohesion families had fewer internalizing problems, and this connection held steady when children got older and into school (Lucia and Breslau, 2006). This finding supports Anme’s framework and the Bioecological theory by emphasizing how stable and supportive homes can aid in children’s development of healthy coping mechanisms and emotional control, which lowers the risk of problematic conduct.

Screen time plays an indirect role in the relationship between the home-rearing environment and children’s outcomes

This study found that screen time plays an indirect role in the relationship between the HRE and children’s academic development. Specifically, the higher the quality of the HRE, the less time children spend using screens, and the greater the children’s language and cognitive abilities, self-efficacy, and self-regulation. The results support the Bioecological theory and IT-CPU theories, which posit that proximal processes may influence the patterns of screen use among children, potentially leading to adverse outcomes (Domoff et al. 2020). Within this framework, the family unit is identified as a crucial microsystem where parental and caregiver strategies significantly shape screen time habits. In line with Neuman (1986), children’s available time is significantly associated with the importance of screen time in their lives, indicating a correlation with the limited number of alternative activities. Consequently, a scarcity of alternative options may lead to increased screen time among children. Because of children’s lack of other activities available, result in screen time is negatively related to cognitive skills. Therefore, a nurturing and supportive home environment with abundant learning opportunities may naturally decrease excessive screen time by providing alternative activities and fostering positive interactions, promoting children’s cognitive development (Hu et al. 2020; Neuman, 1986).

However, the HRE did not show a significant indirect role through screen time related to children’s problem behavior. This result suggests that screen time may not play a significant indirect role in the relationship between the home environment and behavioral outcomes in children. It is possible that other factors or mechanisms, such as peer relationships, school environments, or genetic predispositions, might be more closely associated with the children’s problem behaviors. For example, prior studies have shown that the stability and predictability of the home environment can significantly influence how peer relationships impact children’s mental health and cognitive development (Parker et al., 2015). Thus, further empirical research is essential to explain these influences and understand their associations within the broader context of child development. Additionally, it is noted that although the indirect role of screen time is statistically significant, the magnitude of the indirect association is relatively small (effect sizes around 0.01). This suggests that the HRE’s association with children’s development might extend beyond indirect connections through screen time. Based on Vygotsky’s (1986) theories, children’s face-to-face interaction with caregivers may promote children’s learning and development. Linebarger and Walker (2005) suggest that children benefit more from the scaffolded interactions of direct caregivers than the high-quality screen content that contributes to children’s developmental outcomes. This may account for the relatively small magnitude of the indirect association between screen time and the relationship of the HRE with children’s development.

Limitations and implications

This study has several limitations. First, this study is a cross-sectional design. Thus, it is difficult to examine the causal relationship between the HRE and children’s outcomes. The longitudinal research design could be considered to determine causal relationships in the future. Second, we employed the parent-reported survey to assess children’s academic and behavioral competence. This self-report approach may be susceptible to response bias. Future studies could more objectively assess these abilities using one-on-one behavioral tasks. Third, this study did not distinguish between screen time spent on educational activities, such as reading or educational TV, and that spent on entertainment, like video games or recreational TV. Also, we did not explore children using different electronic devices, including TVs, computers, smartphones, and tablets. These aspects require more detailed examination in subsequent research. Fourth, this study was conducted within the context of Chinese culture; therefore, readers are advised to exercise caution when extrapolating these outcomes to different sociocultural environments.

Despite these limitations, this study emphasizes that parents and caregivers play critical roles in creating an environment that enhances children’s cognitive and behavioral skills and highlights screen time’s potential indirect role in this process. Thus, this study provides practical implications for parents, educators, policymakers, and researchers and highlights the importance of fostering environments that support the healthy development of children. Regarding parents, the rich and engaging HRE may provide children with more learning opportunities (Biersteker and Kvalsvig, 2007; Cohen et al. 2020) and minimize their reliance on screen-based activities, thereby promoting children’s development. Specifically, children’s cognitive and emotional skills are more likely to be promoted when they are more engaged in interactive play, parent-child reading, and outdoor activities rather than screen time (Hu et al. 2020). Also, parental mediation of children’s screen time is important. Parents and caregivers are teachers, facilitators, and gatekeepers of children’s screen time use (Chiong and Shuler, 2010). Thus, parents should be encouraged to monitor and regulate children’s screen time, ensuring screen time is balanced with other activities (e.g., physical and imaginative play and quality parent-child interactions) and providing high-quality screen content within parents’ scaffolding interactions, thereby promoting children’s development (Linebarger and Vaala, 2010). Additionally, this study suggests that the relationship between the HRE and children’s development may extend beyond indirect connections established through screen use. Therefore, educators and policymakers should consider developing strategies (e.g., educational resources, family engagement programs, and supportive public policies) to assist parents in improving the quality of the HRE rather than simply recommending that children spend less time with screen media.

Moreover, our study prompts a reevaluation of traditional developmental theories by integrating screen time exposure as an important environmental factor affecting childhood development. Given the profound impact of technological advancements on family life patterns, exploring how these changes reshape the microsystem of family and child interactions is crucial. With the increasing popularity of digital media, future research should adopt a longitudinal study design to thoroughly examine how the proximal microsystem influences child development over time. Additionally, although this study was conducted within the Chinese cultural context, exploring how HRE influences children through digital media across different cultures is crucial. Future research should adopt cross-cultural approaches to explore the relationship between the HRE and child development across different socioeconomic backgrounds, thereby supporting optimal children’s developmental outcomes across various global contexts.