Introduction

Literature translation poses significant challenges, particularly in clearly rendering culture-specific items (CSIs). This complexity arises because translators must mediate between two distinct cultures and their associated modes of thought. As Olk (2001) noted, cultural references encompass lexical items that can be non-existent in the target culture or carry connotative or denotative meanings that are different from their equivalents in the target language. These linguistic and cultural challenges present considerable obstacles for translators.

Scholars such as Baker (2011), Newmark (2010), Nord (2005) and Schäffner and Wieserman (2001) have emphasised the additional strain introduced by cultural elements in the translation process, particularly for CSIs. Moreover, misunderstanding the source text or lacking cultural awareness can have complex implications, potentially leading to inaccurate and unacceptable translations. Hence, selecting the most effective translation strategy for each individual case is of utmost importance. Therefore, it is critical for translators to be deeply cognizant of cultural differences to effectively communicate the unique cultural nuances and impact of their source text (Zagood et al., 2023; Lahiani, 2022; Zhu et al., 2022; Kuleli, 2019; Zare-Behtash and Phorozooid, 2010).

Although literary translation clearly encompasses a diverse range of genres—from novels and plays to poetry—this study focuses on a specific facet, namely, the translation of short stories within the Emirati cultural context. This study provides a qualitative analysis of the strategies employed to translate the CSIs presented in Dubai Tales, written by Emirati author Mohammed Al Murr, as well as a quantitative analysis of the number of CSIs in different categories. Emirati literature and culture have become very popular in recent years stemming from the United Arab Emirate’s status as a vibrant multicultural hub that is home to over 200 nationalities (UNESCO, 2020).

Dubai Tales was translated by Peter Clark and published by Forest Books (London and Boston) in 1991. The collection selects 21 short stories from Al Murr’s assorted works based on the translator’s and author’s preferences (Clark, 1991). The collection features various themes related to Emirati daily life and values such as family, marriage, divorcee and traditions.

Objectives of the study

Dubai Tales has been rarely discussed in terms of translation. Thus, this study attempts to close this gap and identify and classify CSIs within the original Arabic stories using Newmark’s (1988) classification of culture domains to categorise them and then analyse the strategies adopted for their English translations following Davies’s (2003) proposed strategies. The study provides quantitative and qualitative insights related to the CSIs embedded in the collection of short stories and the strategies Clark employed in the English translation. This study attempts to enhance the understanding of Emirati culture as represented in Emirati literature and discuss the translation strategies that can be employed to render Arabic CSIs in English.

Significance of the study

The significance of this study stems from the fact that it explores the challenges translators face in rendering Emirati short stories in English, a topic that has been rarely discussed in Arabic translation studies. We highlight the importance of accurate cultural representation in translation, which requires considerable cultural awareness from the translator. Therefore, this study responds to the growing need for deep cultural understanding of Emirati culture in the face of globalisation, where the increasing popularity of Emirati literature demands translations that respect the original texts while being comprehensible to a diverse audience. This study contributes to the broad discourse on translation methodology, as advocated by scholars such as Baker, Newmark and Nord, and offers insights for translators, translation educators and researchers regarding the translation of Arabic CSIs. In the following section, we offer an overview of studies that have focused on translating CSIs from and into Arabic, specifically the few studies that have focused on translating Emirati literature.

Translating culture-specific items: a general overview

Studies on translating CSIs into Arabic have primarily focused on strategies used in Arabic translations of fiction (Al-Rikaby et al., 2018; Aljabri, 2021), including in children’s literature (Habtoor and Al-Qahtani, 2018). Researchers have also examined the strategies and difficulties encountered by translator trainees, as they translate these CSIs.

Al-Rikaby et al. (2018) analysed the domestication and foreignisation strategies employed in two Arabic translations of Christopher Marlowe’s play Doctor Faustus, one by H. Murad and the other by A. Luluah, comparing them with the original English version. They found that both translators favoured foreignisation, with it being used more frequently by Murad than by Luluah.

Similarly, Aljabri (2021) focused on Ernest Hemingway’s The Old Man and The Sea and analysed three Arabic translations to identify the strategies the translators used to render the CSIs. The researcher found that the most common strategy conserved the source language (SL) and culture (foreignisation). In contrast, domestication strategies aimed at adapting the source culture to the target language (TL) culture were used less frequently. In the findings of Al-Al-Rikaby et al. (2018) and Aljabri (2021), Arabic translators tended to preserve the cultural differences between the SL and TL cultures.

Meanwhile, Habtoor and Al-Qahtani (2018) investigated translations of the CSIs in children’s literature into Arabic with a focus on three books from the Chronicles of Narnia series to reveal the translators’ strategies for rendering the CSIs in the TL while ensuring that the translations suited the target audience of children. They reported that the translator frequently used foreignisation strategies in translating the books into Arabic but had not been consistent. Habtoor and Al-Qahtani (2018) argued that a balance between foreignisation and domestication strategies would have helped create a balanced translation that would be accessible to the target readers without changing the cultural essence of the source text.

Translating CSIs has also been a research topic in the area of Arabic translator training. Dweik and Suleiman (2013) traced the difficulties that students face in translating CSIs by studying a sample of 60 translation graduate students from three Jordanian universities, having them translate 20 statements including different culture-specific expressions. In the study, most students had difficulties translating the CSIs and failed to render them appropriately; analysing the translations revealed that most of the students’ translations had been literal and had not incorporated any cultural dimensions of the expressions. Dweik and Suleiman determined that most of the students lacked cultural awareness and research skills.

In another study, Bahumaid (2017) examined ten students performing a task similar to Dweik and Suleiman’s (2013): having students translate sentences with 15 Arabic-culture-bound expressions; the students were allowed to use dictionaries and could access the Internet, but most of the participants were not successful in rendering the CSIs into English. Bahumaid identified four primary mistake categories in the students’ translations: mistranslation, under-translation, transliteration and omission. The findings from the studies by Dweik and Suleiman (2013) and Bahumaid (2017) emphasise the difficulty of rendering CSIs from Arabic into English. The authors stress the importance of building cultural competence in translator trainees in training programmes.

Emirati literature in translation

Few studies have addressed the topic of translating CSIs within the Emirati context. Those who have done so have investigated translating into English the CSIs found in Emirati drama (Khamis, 2007; Al-Khaleel, 2011), poetry (Al Qassimi, 2017) and folklore (Al Khamiri, 2015). For instance, Khamis (2007) investigated the challenges of translating CSIs from drama texts written in Emirati dialects related to the specificity of the Emirati culture and dialect. Khamis found that for this reason, most translators simply delete such CSIs from drama texts.

Khamis’s (2007) study involved the Arabic versions and English translations of two plays: Habbat Raml/‘A Grain of Sand’ by Naji Al Hai and Jameela by Jamal Matar. The analysis of the Arabic-Emirati lexical items focused on pragmatic, syntactic and semantic levels of the translated items. Khamis found that in some cases, the translators rendered the Emirati spoken dialect in a more standard and elevated style in the TL, which impacted the function of the source expressions. Khamis argued that translators should consider the functional use of dialects in drama texts, adding that in translating plays with Emirati CSIs, the focus should be on selecting appropriate phonetic, grammatical and syntactic equivalents in the TL that would help reproduce the function of the expressions and their specificity in the context of drama.

Al-Khaleel (2011) also investigated translating Emirati plays by analysing the English translations of Holaku’s Return and Nimrod, written by His Highness Dr Al Qasimi, to determine whether the translations of the plays and their CSIs had been literal or free. Al-Khaleel (2011) found that the translator used both strategies depending on the function of the translated portion and its context in the play. Al-Khaleel concluded that the translator tended to keep the essence of the source culture intact in the TL to preserve the original frame of the play, especially with lexical items referencing religious and cultural aspects. These findings aligned with those of Khamis (2007), who identified a combination of free and literal translation. Furthermore, both researchers argued for the importance of considering the performative aspects of drama texts in addition to their cultural and stylistic aspects.

Meanwhile, Al Khamiri (2015) used a different perspective and investigated the translation quality of the English versions of five Emirati folktales (kharareef), determining that the translator’s lack of understanding and awareness of Emirati culture had led to translations that were detached from their cultural context. The researcher reported several instances of literal translations and mistranslations that led to a loss in meaning in the target text and resulted in translations that did not represent the spirit of Emirati culture. Al Qassimi (2017) studied the translation of Emirati Nabati poetry into English and found similar issues. The researcher chose six poems by Sheikh Sultan bin Salem Al Qassimi for translation into English and hired a native English-speaking translator through an online translation agency. Upon comparing the translated poems with published translations by Holes and Abu Athera, the researcher found that most of the translations were literal, resulting in mistranslations.

As several scholars have reported, translating CSIs in Emirati literature is a meticulous task requiring deep understanding of the genre conventions and the embedded cultural aspects in the texts. The few researchers who have tackled Emirati CSIs in translations have reported mistranslations related to overly literal translations. This study extends these investigations by analysing translations of a unique set of Emirati short stories. This study attempts to expand the limited literature in this area and provide a more in-depth analysis of the translations of CSIs, following Newmark’s (1988) culture categories. Following our analysis, we discuss the translator’s strategies for rendering the stories in Arabic as well as the impact of using these strategies on the overall meaning of the cultural items in their socio-cultural context. The following section provides an overview of the data collection and analyses and discusses Newmark’s cultural categories and Davies’s (2003) framework of translation strategies.

Methodology

The data for the present study comprise the translations of a collection of short stories written by Emirati author Mohammad Al Murr and translated by Peter Clark. The stories in Arabic are published in different volumes; however, the English translation is a selection of the short stories published in 1991 by Forest Books under the title Dubai Tales. The study analysed the data in two stages.

First, each researcher independently analysed each Arabic story thoroughly to extract CSIs; subsequently, these lists were cross-checked to create a unified list. In identifying CSIs, we relied on Baker’s (2011) criteria: She argued that for a word to be a CSI, it must be unknown in the target culture; lack an equivalent in the target language; and represent a fact closely related to a specific culture, custom, language or environment. We then grouped the extracted items according to Newmark’s (1988, 103) five culture domains. Newmark’s model has been adopted by several translation scholars and has proven to be viable for categorising and analysing CSIs. The five categories are as follows:

  • ecology (flora, fauna, winds, plains, hills)

  • material culture (food, clothes, houses and towns, transport)

  • social culture (work and leisure)

  • organisations, customs, activities, procedures and concepts (political and administrative, religious, artistic)

  • gestures and habits

The second stage of the data analysis involved grouping the extracted CSIs according to Clark’s strategies for translating them into English. For this stage, the researchers utilised the translation strategies Davies (2003) proposed:

Strategy

Definition

Preservation

Maintaining the source text term in the translation. This process is, of course, at the heart of any lexical borrowing (72–73)

Addition

Retaining the original lexical item and providing additional explanatory information (77)

Omission

Omitting a problematic culture-specific item, such that no trace of it is found in the translation (79)

Globalisation

Replacing culture-specific references with more neutral or general ones, such that they are accessible to audiences from a wider range of cultural backgrounds (83)

Localisation

Replacing a culture-based lexical item with another item in the target language with the reference rooted in the target audience’s culture (83–84)

Transformation

Altering or distorting the original item due to the translator’s lack of understanding or their effort to respond to the audience’s perceived flexibility, tolerance and willingness to engage with obscure meanings (86)

Creation

Inventing or creating a new word in the target language that was not present in the original text (88)

Davies’s identified translation strategies provide a comprehensive set of tools for helping researchers analyse translations of CSIs.

Findings and discussion

This section features the results of data analysis. First, the quantitative findings from the analysis of CSIs in Newmark’s categories is provided, followed by an overview and in-depth analysis of the qualitative findings regarding the strategies used by Peter Clark to translate the Emirati CSIs into English. Finally, this section discusses how the selected translation strategy played a role in shaping the meaning of the target text.

Culture-specific items and their categories and translation strategies

The data analysis identified 121 CSIs in the 21 short stories in Dubai Tales, which were categorised into four domains of culture, namely, material culture; organisations, customs, activities, procedures and concepts (hereafter, organisations); social culture; and ecology, per Newmark’s classifications. Figure 1 shows that organisations had the most CSIs at 44 (36.36% of the total), followed by material culture (42 items; 34.71%) and social culture (32 items; 26.44%). The fewest CSIs were observed in the category of ecology (three items, 2.47%).

Fig. 1
figure 1

Categories of culture-specific items found in the Dubai Tales.

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These quantitative findings offer a valuable basis for further analysis of Peter Clark’s strategies for translating the CSIs in Dubai Tales from Arabic into English. An analysis revealed, as presented in Fig. 2, that he primarily relied on globalisation, accounting for 79 examples or 65.28%, followed by preservation (37 examples; 30.57%). He used transformation in three instances (2.47%) while addition and creation were used only once (0.82% in total). Notably, he did not use localisation or omission at all.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Translation strategies employed for rendering CSIs found in Dubai Tales into English.

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Globalisation entails making the text accessible to a global audience by generalising more specific cultural references. The fact that globalisation was the most commonly used strategy potentially points to Clark’s desire to make these stories more universally understandable, even at the cost of losing specific cultural nuances. Nonetheless, a deeper qualitative assessment is required to comprehend the precise motives behind these choices and their subsequent implications for the translated narratives. In the following sections, the analysis concentrates on each category of CSI and examines how Clark opted to represent each CSI in the target language. More precisely, it focuses on whether each category is domesticated (adapted to the culture of the target audience) or foreignised (retaining the characteristics of the original culture).

Organisations, customs, activities, procedures and concepts

The organisations category encompasses the terms associated with a range of societal facets, including religious, political, administrative and artistic activities. Here, globalisation emerged as the most frequently used strategy; Clark applied it in translating 37 of a total of 44 items, representing 84.09% of the instances. He used preservation less frequently, for translating seven cultural items (15.90%). Table 1 presents examples of the CSIs within this category, along with their English translations and corresponding translation strategies.

Table 1 Sample of CSIs in the organisations category.
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In these examples, we observed that Clark applied globalisation to translate obscure terms such as ‘مطاوعة’ (matˁaːwʕa) and ‘حرام عليك’ (ħaraːm ʕaliːk) into more universally comprehensible terms in English, namely, ‘men of religion’ and ‘shame on you’, respectively. The vast complexity of cultural elements contained within this category makes globalisation an effective strategy for distiling these intricate concepts into simpler, more digestible forms for the target audience. However, although it is true that globalisation can help provide a more universal appeal to the text, potentially broadening its readership, this choice carries implications for the target text. For instance, ‘shame on you’ is a fairly direct translation and conveys the idea of reproach, but the expression ‘حرام عليك’ has a stronger moral and religious undertone in the Arabic, often implying that something is not just shameful but also religiously forbidden or wrong. This religious aspect is lost in the translation.

The term ‘حرام’ (ħara:m) in Arabic has strong ties to Islamic religious teachings. Translating it into ‘shame on you’ partially retains the moral dimension but not the religious significance. Therefore, while globalisation can increase reader engagement by removing potential cultural barriers, it can also subtly alter the original ‘flavour’ or unique cultural essence of the text. Such alterations can make the translation more relatable to the target audience but simultaneously distance the text from its original cultural context.

In contrast, terms such as ‘الجن’ (Ɂalʒin), ‘البدو’ (Ɂalbaduː) and ‘القرآن’ (Ɂalquraːn) were preserved in their original forms, maintaining their unique cultural essence in the target text. The choice between globalisation and preservation thus provides insight into the delicate balance between ensuring comprehensibility and preserving cultural authenticity in translation. Particularly Qur’an (the holy book of Muslims) and to some extent jinns (or jinn, ‘ghost’), are likely already familiar to many English-speaking audiences; the Qur’an, the central religious text of Islam, is well recognised and the concept of jinn, although less universally known, has entered English usage through the idea of genies in folklore and popular culture. Meanwhile, ‘Bedu’ or ‘Bedouin’ (‘inhabitant of the desert’) may be less familiar, but it is often recognised as a nomadic group in the Middle East.

Thus, preservation helps maintain the cultural specificity and richness of the original text. For religious or culturally significant terms such as ‘Qur’an’ or concepts such as ‘jinns’ and ‘Bedu’, preservation can also show accuracy and respect; by maintaining the original term, the translator ensures that the specific cultural or religious meanings are not distorted or diluted. Peter Clark’s predominant use of globalisation, in contrast, appears to have been influenced by the complexity of the source concepts and the absence of one-to-one correspondence between the source and target languages. Offering alternative translations for such intricate concepts may have potentially disrupted the reading experience and impeded the narrative flow; Clark’s strategy was to balance the preservation of cultural specificity with the imperative of ensuring broad accessibility, a pervasive challenge in the field of translation. However, the translator’s approach also demonstrated variation when translating items related to material culture, as discussed next.

Material culture

In the material culture category, Clark primarily used preservation and globalisation to translate the CSIs into English; he used preservation for 24 items (57.14% of the total CSIs in the category) and globalisation for 16 items (38.09%). He used transformation the least often, for only two items (4.76%). Notably, Clark’s predominant strategy in this category aligned with the foreignisation approach in that preservation essentially seeks to retain the cultural elements of the source text and requires the target audience to adapt to the source culture.

For instance, Clark largely preserved items related to clothing and food, possibly because they are now globally recognised or because maintaining the authentic terms added cultural richness and integrity. For food items such as ‘الهريس’ (Ɂalhariːs), translated as haris (a coarsely ground cracked wheat with meat dish), ‘سمبوسة’ (sambuːsa), translated as sambusa (a triangular pastry filled with meat, cheese or vegetables) and ‘سمكة الكركمبة’ (samakat Ɂalkirkumba), translated as kurkumba (a common sea fish in the Gulf region), keeping the original terminology is crucial to retaining their full cultural flavour and identity. Similarly, several Arabic clothing terms such as عقال (ʕiqaːl), الغترة (Ɂalɣitra), and بشت (biʃt) have been borrowed by the English as iqal (the cord that circles the headcloth.), ghutra (a headcloth worn by men) and bisht (a man’s cloak). Researchers on CSIs in different contexts have documented the use of preservation to translate material culture terms (Al-Batineh, 2023), thereby underscoring the indispensability of lexical borrowing in reflecting cultural significance. Table 2 shows a sample of CSIs related to material culture along with the strategies used to translate them into English.

Table 2 Sample of CSIs in the material culture category.
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Al-Batineh and Alsmadi (2021) highlighted similar trends in Arabic–English literary translations; they specifically noted that the translator of Mahfouz’s novel Khan Al-Khalili predominantly used preservation (specifically borrowing) to render food and clothing items (592–593); meanwhile, Saleh (2011) and Al-Rushaidi and Ali (2017) noted the common use of preservation to translate food items. Conversely, using globalisation to translate material culture-related CSIs makes them more accessible and familiar to the target audience.

For instance, the translator rendered the Arabic term ‘تقويم العجيري’ (taqwiːm Ɂalʕaʒiːriː), a type of calendar invented by the Kuwaiti astronomer Saleh Al-Ajiri (Watson et al. 2022, 161), as ‘a calendar’, using globalisation to create an accessible English translation for target readers. However, this strategy may have altered the cultural essence embedded in this CSI because the Al-Ajiri calendar has become part of the material culture of several countries in the Gulf region. Similarly, the translator rendered the cultural term ‘العنزروت’ (Ɂalʕanzaruːt), a plant that is historically used as a traditional medicine in the UAE, as ‘local medicine’ using globalisation. In this context, Lahiani (2020, 2022) stresses the fact that historical context and connotations that led to the production of source texts.

Using preservation in translating material cultural items particularly related to food and clothing, appears to stem from the desire to retain and emphasise their cultural authenticity and uniqueness. Using globalisation for other terms in turn reflects an intention to make certain aspects of the culture more accessible and thus relatable to a broader audience, even if that means sacrificing some cultural specificity. Choosing between these strategies reflects the translator’s nuanced balancing act, where preservation is employed to emphasise cultural richness and identity, and globalisation is used to facilitate comprehension and relatability for a diverse audience.

Social culture

Clark’s most frequent strategy for translating the social culture CSIs was globalisation, used with 25 items (78.12%), followed by preservation with 6 items (18.75%) and transformation with 1 (3.12%). Notably, the dominant underlying approach observed throughout the translation was domestication, which involves adapting the content to make it more familiar and accessible to the target audience. Table 3 shows a sample of CSIs related to social culture along with the strategies used to translate them into English.

Table 3 Sample of CSIs in the social culture category.
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Peter Clark’s translation of Dubai Tales offers of wealth of examples for exploring the translation strategies used for social culture CSIs. For instance, the word ‘النواخذة’(Ɂalnawaːxða) is an old term used in the Gulf referring to the owners or leaders of a fishing or trading ship, and it has cultural and social importance in the region; however, Clark translated it as simply ‘captains’. He used an equivalent term with a similar semantic value and function to reach a wider audience in the target culture and successfully reflected the meaning of the original text.

However, globalisation was not always successful. Clark translated ‘محلات الخياطة والتخوير’ (maħalaːt Ɂalxijaːtˁa waltaxwiːr) as ‘shops’, but it specifically refers to sewing and embroidery shops; in Emirati culture, sewing and embroidery hold a particular place of importance reflecting traditional crafts; this aspect is lost in the translation. Similarly, he translated ‘الولائم الكبيرة’ (ɁalwalaɁim Ɂalkabiːra) as ‘large parties’, which loses the cultural richness embedded in the original Arabic term: In Arabic, الولائم (ɁalwalaɁim) signifies grand feasts or banquets, usually including an abundance of traditional food and drinks. Here, Clark’s choice of ‘large parties’ is a missed opportunity to educate the audience about this unique aspect of Emirati and the broader Arab culture. He may have used a term closer to ‘banquet’ or ‘feast’ and offered a note on the cultural significance of ‘الولائم’ in the Emirati culture, or he may have simply used ‘traditional Emirati banquets’ or ‘grand Emirati feasts’, which would have incorporated an element of globalisation for ease of understanding but also an element of preservation for cultural accuracy.

In contrast with ‘الولائم’, Clark used preservation when translating ‘مجالس’ (mʒaːlis) into English. This type of lexical borrowing introduces a pronounced foreign element into the target text, helping the translator produce a text that is authentic and that, at the same time, provokes readers’ curiosity. It is worth noting that the term majalis is very common in the Gulf, referring to gatherings or big rooms where people meet for various social occasions. Using preservation helped Clark retain the cultural and traditional significance of the term in the source culture; to aid the reader, he included the term in the glossary for Dubai Tales. By doing so, the translator intentionally borrowed some lexical items in the translation as a way to explicitly highlight their socio-cultural value in the source text.

Moreover, Clark preserved the names ‘أم كلثوم’ (Ɂum kalθuːm as Um Kulthum) and ‘رباعيات الخيّام’ (rubaːʕijaːt Ɂalxjjaːm as the Rubaaiyat of Omar Khayyam). Um Kulthum, ‘أم كلثوم’ is a revered Egyptian singer and cultural figure, considered one of the greatest singers in the history of Arab music. She has influenced many musicians in the Arab world and is held in high esteem in the Arab culture because of her significant contributions to Arabic music and Egyptian society (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2012). By retaining her original name, Clark ensures that the iconic singer is recognised by her original identity for her cultural significance; to aid the reader, he also includes her name in the glossary.

Similarly, ‘رباعيات الخيّام’ is a well-known Persian poem attributed to Omar Khayyam that Clark preserved in English as the ‘Rubaaiyat of Omar Khayyam’. By doing so, Clark maintained the original form and essence of the term, highly effective in conveying meaning, as ‘Rubaaiyat’ is a well-known Persian poetic form, and Omar Khayyam is a celebrated Persian mathematician, astronomer and poet. The translation retains the cultural and historical authenticity of the original term and facilitates understanding of the source text. It is likely that readers familiar with world literature will recognise Omar Khayyam and the Rubaaiyat; hence this strategy works in conveying the intended meaning. As a translation strategy, preservation is excellent at retaining the source text’s cultural representation.

By using the original term ‘Rubaaiyat’ along with the name ‘Omar Khayyam’, the translation retains the cultural and historical specificity of the text. It is not only about retaining the poetry form but also an acknowledgement of the text’s cultural heritage. The use of original terms may stimulate the curiosity of readers unfamiliar with them and prompt further exploration. This approach enhances the cultural richness of the text. In this instance, the preservation strategy is aptly applied. For a more comprehensive understanding, particularly for readers unfamiliar with Omar Khayyam or Rubaaiyat, including footnotes or listing the terms in the glossary is helpful to explain their historical and cultural significance. The translator could also consider briefly explaining the form and characteristics of the Rubaaiyat to provide more context to readers not acquainted with this poetic form.

Ecology

We identified three ecological CSIs in Dubai Tales, and Clark used a different translation strategy with each to create a domesticated version of these items in the English version. In one example, he translated the term سدر السيد هاشم (sidr Ɂalsajjid haːʃim as Sidr of Sayyid Hashim using addition). A Sidr is a specific type of tree within Arabic culture; without any additional context, the non-Arabic audience may not understand its significance. By adding ‘tree’, the translator ensured that the audience understands the literal meaning of Sidr. However, the cultural richness associated with this specific type of tree may remain opaque to the reader. Thus, it is commendable that Clark did not substitute the term with a more generic alternative. To convey the deeper cultural connotations associated with ‘Sidr’, the translator included a glossary explanation, defining it as a ‘lotus tree’. Further supplementation with an explanatory footnote or glossary entry detailing the cultural and historical significance of ‘Sidr of Sayyid Hashim’ would provide even richer understanding for readers unfamiliar with its context in the region.

In contrast, Clark translated a second example, صحراء عاطفية (sˁaħraːɁ ʕaːtˁifjja – lit. emotional desert) as ‘emotional wilderness’ using globalisation. ‘Wilderness’ carries a general connotation of barrenness and desolation similar to a desert, but in the Arabic context, ‘desert’ likely holds a more profound cultural resonance considering the prevalence of desert landscapes in the region. The translation thus dilutes this cultural connection by opting for a more neutral term. Although the conveyed meaning remains largely intact, its full cultural depth is somewhat compromised.

Conclusion

This study explored the strategies that Peter Clark employed to translate the Emirati CSIs in Mohammed Al Murr’s Dubai Tales into English. Further, the study critically evaluated the implications of these strategies for the conveyed meanings and the cultural representations of these items. The study drew on Newmark’s (1988, 103) classification of culture domains and Davies’s (2003) proposed translation strategies as analytical frameworks for that evaluation.

The quantitative analysis revealed a total of 121 CSIs present in the 21 short stories, and the largest number could be categorised under Newmark’s organisations, customs, activities, procedures and concepts, followed by material culture, social culture and ecology. In terms of translation strategy, the study found that Clark largely used globalisation and preservation to translate the CSIs into English; notably, he did not use the localisation or omission at all, indicating a preference to keep the cultural elements intact in the translated version rather than localising them to fit the target culture or omitting them completely. The absence of these strategies reveal a conscientious effort to globalise the cultural elements, reflecting a proclivity towards domestication rather than foreignisation.

The qualitative analysis revealed that Clark used different strategies for various categories of CSIs. For organisations, which encompasses terms associated with an array of societal facets, including religious, political, administrative and artistic activities, Clark notably favoured globalisation over preservation. However, although globalisation facilitates accessibility to a broader audience, it can simultaneously contribute to cultural dilution and the loss of specific nuances. Preservation would have better preserved the cultural fabric in the translation.

In contrast, preservation was Clark’s strategy of choice for a majority of the CSIs in the material culture category, reflecting a conscious effort to maintain cultural authenticity and integrity. By retaining original terms for items such as traditional dishes and garments, the translation allows the reader to engage with the texture of the source culture; Clark employed globalisation selectively to foster broader accessibility, but with implications for cultural representation. He also predominately used globalisation to translate CSIs in the category of social culture, which encompasses terms related to work activities, hobbies and entertainment, and used preservation less often. Interestingly, there were three CSIs in the ecology category, and Clark used a different strategy to translate each of them, though he appeared to focus on domestication and comprehensibility in translation these terms.

In translating Dubai Tales, Peter Clark navigated a delicate balance between ensuring understandability and retaining Emirati cultural elements, reflecting the intricate nature of translating CSIs. This focus required maintaining the balance between cultural authenticity and global comprehensibility, demonstrating Clark’s cultural sensitivity and knowledge of the impact on cultural representation. Although globalisation made the translations of some CSIs more accessible and relatable, this occasionally came at the expense of cultural depth and richness.

This study sheds light on the intricate nature of translating CSIs by emphasising that in addition to linguistic expertise, a profound understanding of the source and target cultures is necessary. The findings accentuate the need for translator education programmes to focus on cultivating cultural awareness and sensitivity, which is crucial in managing the delicate equilibrium between preserving cultural authenticity and guaranteeing global comprehensibility. The study advocates for expanding this investigation to various literary genres and cultures to foster a holistic and complete understanding of translation strategies.

Data sharing

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.