Introduction

English has firmly maintained its dominance worldwide, and Algeria is no exception to that rule. This article reflects on Algerian university students’ concerns about using English. English is spread throughout this setting in a linguistic and cultural mosaic, whose colors are muddled by backward and forward jerky movements. In order to regain authenticity and adapt to modern perspectives in Algeria’s postcolonial environment, significant effort has been made to adopt the English language as an indicator. However, it has been noted that university students in Algeria of all ethnicities and linguistic proficiency levels frequently report experiencing fear and anxiety when speaking other languages. They find it exceedingly challenging to participate in oral communication activities, and in some situations, nervousness prohibits them from even attempting to speak the language, exposing what they perceive as their faults and defects in front of their peers (Idri, 2012; Melouah, 2013). In this sense, language anxiety is detrimental to how Algerian university students learn other languages.

Popular definitions of ethnicity include identifying or affection for a specific ethnic group. Ethnicity is subjective because it is founded on human perception; it involves pride in or allegiance to one’s ancestry. However, ethnicity may also be objective because it is molded by social circumstances and power dynamics, and must be based on objective elements. This is independent of the one using the term (Yetman, 1991; Chakraborty and Ghosh, 2013). In Algeria, there are two main ethnicities: Arab and Amazigh. Although all Algerians accept the Amazigh language (Tamazight), most Arab people speak Arabic as their mother tongue, as they are not yet familiar with Tamazight.

In contrast, Amazigh people speak both Tamazight and Arabic as their native languages. In 2016, Tamazight became an official language by a constitutional decree (Algerian Constitution, 2016), and its curriculum has recently been included in several middle and secondary schools in Algeria. Hence, Algerians can reinforce their culture and background by learning about Tamazight. In this regard, not all Arab Algerian university students are familiar with Tamazight, but all Amazigh university students are familiar with Arabic. In addition, according to the latest education system reform in Algeria by President Abdelmadjid Teboun, the English language has been added to primary schools to promote education and simultaneously improve students’ engagement in understanding intercultural communication (AL-Fanar Media, 2022).

Consequently, the way language is viewed by students differs. While Amazigh students think of English as their fourth language after French, many Arab students who have not learned Tamazight in middle or secondary school think of it as their third target language after French. Studies that address language anxiety insights based on ethnicity and language proficiency are lacking in this field of study, mainly based on Amazigh and Arab origins, whose populations are widespread in northern Africa, particularly Algeria. In addition, no research has addressed the language concerns of Algerian students since Tamazight became an official language in Algeria in 2016. Accordingly, this study aimed to fill this gap in the literature and provide new insights from new approaches and participants. Young (1992) viewed language anxiety as a complex psychological phenomenon that requires research from several viewpoints and approaches. Much research has been done in the field of language anxiety from the perspectives of students (Jee, 2015; Thompson and Khawaja, 2016; Fallah, 2016, Phongsa et al., 2017), teachers (Alrabai, 2015; Buyukkarci, 2014) and in the form of correlational research (Elahi Shirvan and Taherian, 2018; Zhou et al., 2020; Aslan and Thompson, 2018). The current study focused on language anxiety in an Algerian environment based on linguistic competence. The most important factors affecting students’ English language anxiety are ethnicity and English proficiency. These criteria can also significantly impact student engagement in the job market.

Thus, this study aimed to assess the degree of English language anxiety among multilingual undergraduate Algerian students, exploring the most dominant factor behind this anxiety and taking into account three key variables: ethnicity, language proficiency, and university major. Given this primary objective, the following research questions were developed:

  1. 1.

    To what level do Algerian undergraduate students experience anxiety when using English?

  2. 2.

    What is the most common anxiety factor among Algerian undergraduate students when using English?

  3. 3.

    Are Algerian undergraduate students’ anxiety levels statistically different by major, language proficiency, or ethnicity?

Literature review

Because FL anxiety is tied to a person’s psychological and emotional factors, its assessment is complicated. For example, many studies conducted in the 1980s were inconclusive because their results were extraordinarily inconsistent and erroneous. Researchers’ difficulties in showing a link between anxiety and FL proficiency were aggravated by the lack of appropriate methods for assessing anxiety or specific criteria (Al-khresheh, 2020). Foreign language anxiety is a type of anxiety that is commonly connected with learning foreign languages. It develops when learners are uncomfortable in circumstances where they must communicate in a foreign language; learners have “a reaction which impedes their ability to perform successfully in a foreign language class” (Horwitz et al., 1986, p.125).

When foreign language students are anxious, they may struggle to grasp foreign language words, have difficulty creating a language’s unique intonation and rhythm, and/or refuse to speak altogether (Al-khresheh, 2020; Manipuspika, 2018). Bailey et al. (2003) stated that foreign language “anxiety can manifest when students avoid communicating difficult messages in the target language, when they exhibit a lack of self-confidence or freeze up in role-play activities, and when they forget previously learned grammar or vocabulary in evaluative situations” (pp. 304–305). It is one of the most significant variables for accomplishing competence in a foreign language. For this reason, several studies in the field of foreign languages have highlighted the influence of foreign language anxiety on the learning process (Alrabai, 2014; Bosmans and Hurd, 2016; Dikmen, 2021; Lileikienė and Danilevičienė, 2016; Luo, 2018). The influence extends to different majors, and some differences in language anxiety have been found among students from different majors. For instance, Pizzarro (2018) investigated foreign language anxiety among students of English for philology and biology purposes. The results showed that philology students experienced a lower level of foreign language anxiety than biology students. However, Gopang et al. (2015) investigated language anxiety among students from Lasbela University in Pakistan. The study involved 240 students from the disciplines of English, economics, veterinary sciences, agriculture, and marine sciences. The data were collected using a questionnaire, and the results revealed significant differences among students from the five majors.

Young (1992) described foreign language anxiety as a multifaceted and multidimensional phenomenon with various sources. Similarly, according to Macintyre (2017), anxiety should no longer be viewed as a stable and independent concept. Instead, he developed a “Dynamic Approach to Anxiety,” emphasizing anxiety as a construct constantly interacting with various resources. These factors might trigger foreign language anxiety, including fear of miscomprehension or talking in front of others (Gregersen, 2020; Naser Oteir and NijrAl-Otaibi, 2019; Suleimenova, 2013; Zheng, 2008), students’ attitudes about learning, teachers’ beliefs about instruction, teacher–learner rapport, classroom environment, assessment and evaluation (Al-Saraj, 2014; Asif, 2017; Hashemi, 2011; Liu and Xiangming, 2019), and low self-esteem and competition (Huang, 2012; Siagto-Wakat, 2016).

According to Horwitz et al. (1986), the most important causes of language anxiety are communication anxiety (fear of interacting with people), fear of negative experiences (dread about others’ evaluations and avoidance of evaluative situations), and test anxiety (performance anxiety stemming from the fear of failure). These three dimensions are considered the conceptual foundations of Horwitz et al.’s (1986) model. Horwitz et al. (1986) considered communication apprehension a shyness type characterized by fear of communication with others. It is “an individual’s level of fear or anxiety associated with either real or anticipated communication with another person or persons” (McCroskey and Beatty, 1986). This arises when learners lack mature interaction abilities, despite having mature ideas and views. It refers to apprehension about engaging in genuine conversation in pairs or groups (oral communication anxiety), in public (“stage fright”), or in listening to or learning a spoken message (receiver anxiety) (Horwitz et al., 1986). A learner’s self-perception as a skilled communicator may be called into doubt when required to communicate in a foreign language they have only recently acquired. Consequently, learners may experience feelings of resistance, self-consciousness, fear, or panic (Nakatani, 2010; Phongsa et al., 2017). In addition to making it difficult to communicate or be evaluated, extremely high levels of communication anxiety can have physiological effects such as rapid heartbeat, trembling, and profuse sweating (Jendli and AlBarakati, 2019). This anxiety might make it difficult for students to communicate; they may frequently avoid connecting with others because they feel uncomfortable expressing themselves publicly (Manipuspika, 2018).

Manipuspika (2018) investigated Indonesian EFL students’ communication and language anxiety readiness. A total of 98 participants completed the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS). The findings supported a significant positive association between communicative anxiety and anxiety in learning a foreign language. Nakamura et al. (2020) conducted cross-cultural research on communication and language anxiety among Japanese university students using the Personal Report of Communication Apprehension (PRCA) and (FLCAS). The results showed that Japanese students had high communication anxiety.

It is important to remember that anxiety has a considerable psychological impact on language learning. According to Spitalli (2000), attitudes toward people of different cultures and anxiety levels are negatively correlated. According to Salehi and Marefat (2014), even the smartest and most extroverted people may have communication issues.

Fear of failure or test anxiety is another dimension emphasized by Horwitz et al. (1986). Test-anxious students often put unrealistic demands on themselves and feel that anything less than perfect test performance is a failure (Horwitz et al., 1986, p. 128). Test anxiety refers to the cognitive, physiological, and behavioral responses concerned about possible negative consequences or failure on exams or similar evaluative situations (Aydin and Uştuk, 2020). This anxiety is associated with apprehension about an examination, test, or other assignments to assess a learner’s performance. Test anxiety may cause students to lose focus during an exam. Students can acquire unfavorable attitudes toward tests. As a result, even well-prepared students may make mistakes. Aydin and Uştuk (2020) explored text anxiety in 75 EFL university students in Turkey. The adopted research instruments included background questionnaires, focus groups, essays, and interviews. The results showed the existence of test anxiety among the participants, adopting few test-anxiety-reduction strategies. Cakici (2016) examined the relationship between test anxiety, foreign language anxiety, and language achievement of EFL students in Turkey as well; the sample consisted of 301 university students, and data collection included the FLCAS, test anxiety inventory scale, and student achievement scores. The results indicated a significant positive relationship between test anxiety and foreign language anxiety.

Negative experiences are the third dimension highlighted by Horwitz et al. (1986). It is the “apprehension about others’ evaluations, avoidance of evaluative situations, and the expectation that others would evaluate oneself negatively” (Horwitz et al., 1986, p. 128). A student afraid of unfavorable criticism may be too sensitive to the opinions and attitudes of others in the classroom, including teachers and classmates. Aydin (2008) studied EFL students’ fear of negative evaluations and foreign language anxiety in Turkey. This study included 112 EFL learners and demonstrated that participants feared negative evaluations and experienced foreign language anxiety. The study also revealed that fear of negative failure led to language anxiety among participants. Shabani (2012) studied fear of failure and foreign language anxiety among 61 EFL learners in Iran. The researchers adopted the FLCAS and the Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale. The study revealed the existence of fear of failure, foreign language anxiety, and a strong relationship between them. Riasati (2011) investigated foreign language anxiety among EFL learners in Iran through a qualitative study including three adult EFL learners. The findings revealed fear of negative evaluation by teachers and classmates as a source and cause of foreign language anxiety.

Research method

The main objective of this study was to determine the level of language anxiety among a group of undergraduate students in Algeria, along with the most dominant factors of such anxiety, taking into consideration variables such as major, language proficiency, and ethnicity. A descriptive quantitative research approach was followed to achieve these objectives.

Participants

This study included 471 undergraduate university students: 233 men (49.5%) and 238 women (50.5%). The participants’ ages ranged from 19 to 24 years old. Natural sciences (N = 144, 30.6%), human sciences (N = 152, 32.3%), and applied sciences (N = 175, 37.2%) were the three majors represented. All participants were first-year students. They were considered multilingual because they spoke at least Arabic natively, as well as French, Tamazight, and English. Regarding ethnicity, only Amazigh people spoke Tamazight, whereas very few Arab Algerians can (Boudouaia et al., 2022). Regardless of major, English was taught as a basic topic in the university curricula. Most participants (N = 307; 65.2%) listed Arabic as their native language, while (N = 164; 34.8%) indicated Tamazight as their native language. Self-ratings of language proficiency were used, as in other studies on anxiety (Macintyre et al., 1997; Liu and Yuan, 2021). Participants were asked to score their listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills in Tamazight, Arabic, French, and English on a scale from 1 to 10. Table 1 displays the results. Participants self-rated themselves as fluent in the majority language, Arabic, across the four languages. They also indicated high scores in French, whereas English had the lowest scores, ranked fourth for Amazigh people and third for Arab people. The majority of Amazigh students excelled in Tamazight. Arab students, however, scored the lowest in Tamazight. Additionally, Amazigh students outperformed Arab students in both French and English.

Table 1 Language skills in Arabic, Tamazight, French, and English.
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Instrument

The FLCAS, developed by Horwitz et al. (1986) and revised by Santos et al. (2015), served as the primary research tool in this study. This is one of the most commonly used scales in foreign language learning, psychology, and education to measure foreign language anxiety (Al-khresheh, 2020; Santos et al., 2015). There are 24 closed items on the scale. Participants score statements on a 5-point Likert scale as follows: strongly agree: 5, strongly disagree: 4, neutral: 3, agree: 2, and strongly disagree: 1. We also included a demographic section that collected information on gender, age, language proficiency, major, and ethnicity. A self-rating scale was used to assess the four language skills: Tamazight, Arabic, French, and English.

Participants in this study were not EFL students, as previously mentioned, and questions on classroom anxiety were excluded from the questionnaire. Instead, particular instances were introduced, such as ordering food or providing instructions. Three items were connected to their prior experience as English language learners since communicative anxiety can grow over time, and the participants in this study had extensive exposure to English. The technique used in this study also considered the environment and other demographic factors.

Instrument’s content validity

The validity of the scale was re-evaluated after certain components were removed and added. To verify surface validity, the questionnaire was shown to a group of five experts and professionals in the fields of linguistics, psychology, and education. Following the panel’s suggestions, it was decided to add the following statement to the factor of negative experiences: “I feel worried about leaving unfavorable impressions on others.”

A pilot study was conducted with 70 students to verify the internal consistency of this scale. Cronbach’s alpha was 0.771, and the square root of α was \(\sqrt \alpha\) = 0.878. Such values are considered acceptable for validating the questionnaire (AL-Qadri and Zhao, 2021).

The components of the anxiety questionnaire were re-examined to demonstrate construct validity and reliability. Varimax rotated exploratory factor analysis was used to identify the underlying domains of language anxiety. In Algeria, confirmatory factor analysis was used to corroborate these domains. A main component analysis was performed to assess the validity of the concept and identify the factors on which the items were loaded. The KMO value was 0.761, which indicates that factor analysis should be performed (i.e., the KMO value was higher than 0.6 (Chan and Idris, 2017)). Furthermore, the results of the BST chi-squared statistics, which were significant, demonstrated that the data had a normal distribution with a number of variables. Therefore, the BST was found to be significant (Chi-square = 3200.950; p = 0.001). These results demonstrate that language anxiety was a valid component for factor analysis in this study. The 23 questions were divided into three components, and three results were confirmed: communicative anxiety (8 items), fear of failure (12 items), and negative experiences (3 items). Due to the Algerian context described in Table 2, researchers removed item 19 (I get nervous when I do not understand all the words) since its loading was less than (0.40) in the current study.

Table 2 Component Loadings.
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As shown in Table 3, Cronbach’s alpha (α) values for each component were 0.758, 0.736, and 0.742, respectively. All values were suitable for this measurement and were acceptable. The composite reliability (CR) for each factor was 0.799, 0.795, and 0.766, respectively. All average variance extracted (AVE) values were higher than 0.50, indicating a good approximation of validity (Orçan, 2018; Hair et al., 2014). To evaluate discriminant validity, each factor that contained the AVE was also tested with the squared correlation and presented appropriately in the table. Proof of discriminant validity was satisfactory (Orçan, 2018; Heale and Twycross, 2015).

Table 3 Construct validity and reliability.
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The following values were obtained to achieve a satisfactory fit of the model successfully: (X2/df = 4.416, CFI = 0.912, TLI = 0.904, GFI = 0.900, AGFI = 0.902, NFI = 0.905, RMSEA = 0.070). All fit indices were reasonably high according to the standards outlined in several earlier studies (AL-Qadri et al., 2022). The 23 questions that comprised the study’s final research instrument were all confirmed by CFA and scored greater than 0.40. Items were allocated according to a three-factor model with the following components: 8 items for communicative anxiety, 12 items for fear of failure, and 3 items for negative experiences.

Data collection and analysis

The University Research Ethics Review Committee’s written agreement was obtained to interact with and collect data for research purposes without ethical issues. Students were informed of the study and provided their consent before being accepted for data collection. Additionally, it was clarified that all information would be kept private and used only for the objectives of this study. The study’s primary goal was made evident to participants and posted at the top of the first questionnaire page. Data were gathered from two institutions in Algeria: The University of Oran 1 Ahmed Ben Bella and the University of Oran 2 Mohamed Ben Ahmed, during the second semester of the academic year 2021–2022. Three lecturers gathered the information over 3 months as volunteers for this research in the same departments. Of the 495 questionnaires distributed, 471 were returned. SPSS 22 and JASP statistical programs were used to analyze the data once they were obtained. The analyzed data were represented using a tabulation approach.

Results

To successfully acquire a foreign language, students must overcome their English language anxiety, which has consistently been shown to have a negative impact on the process (Alrabai, 2015; Zheng and Cheng, 2018). Language anxiety has been linked to students’ perceptions of the language learning process, their self-awareness about the language, how they should behave in any communicative environment, and the linguistic challenges they must handle in their interactions in English as a third or fourth language.

The statistical analysis of linguistic anxiety levels for each component is presented in Table 4. In general, this demonstrates that all students, regardless of their ethnicity, degree of language competence, or major, had different anxiety levels. The communicative anxiety factor, which accounted for 33% of all anxiety, was by far the most prevalent, followed by fear of failure(32%) and negative experiences (2%).

Table 4 Language anxiety levels.
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The relationship between language anxiety and language proficiency with multilingual students

Data analysis was carried out in this study using a variety of factors, including language competency (intermediate–advanced) as a dependent variable and multilingual students (Arab–Amazigh) as an independent variable on a language anxiety scale. Comparisons were made using ANOVA. Based on their performance in the four English-language skills, participants’ levels of English proficiency were categorized as intermediate and advanced. There were 150 individuals with advanced proficiency and 321 with intermediate proficiency. Arab Algerian students comprised 65.2% of the population, while Amazigh Algerian students made up 34.8%.

The descriptive values in Table 5 and the statistically significant differences among Algerian students (Arab and Amazigh) in Table 6 show that there are differences that favor students who are at an advanced level and less anxious about language. The main effects of proficiency (intermediate and advanced) on language anxiety of Arab and Amazigh Algerian students were as follows: (F = 6342.458; p ≤ 0.01), (F = 1607.517; p ≤ 0.01), (F = 2235.780; p ≤ 0.01), and (F = 2748.475; p ≤ 0.01), indicating that participants with intermediate English proficiency experienced more anxiety (M = 78.008). Similarly, Table 5 shows that participants with advanced competence (M = 74.198; SD = 10.428) had less anxiety than Amazigh Algerian students with intermediate proficiency (M = 77.614; SD = 11.266). Additionally, as demonstrated in Table 6, there was an interaction between participant type (Arab or Amazigh) and proficiency level (intermediate or advanced) (F = 3.979; p = 0.049).

Table 5 Relationships among language anxiety and language proficiency with multilingual students.
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Table 6 Simple main effects—English proficiency on students’ language anxiety.
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Table 7 displays the findings, which illustrate how the three anxiety domain scores affect the variations in the anxiety levels of the applied sciences, human sciences, and natural sciences. The participants’ three communicative anxiety categories were compared using analysis of variance (ANOVA). Variations in Communicative Anxiety among the three participant groups were not statistically significant (F(2, 468) = 0.549, p = 0.578). F(2, 468) = 3.593, p = 0.028) showed a statistically significant difference in fear of failure. F(2, 468) = 0.927, p = 0.396 showed that there was no statistically significant difference in negative experiences.

Table 7 Differences among applied, human, and natural sciences.
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Discussion

Because of regionalism, many nations and unions require a common language in addition to their national languages to operate successfully. Multilingualism facilitates and accelerates communication. The current study examined how language proficiency and ethnicity (Arab Algerian and Amazigh Algerian) affect language anxiety among Algerian university students in a multilingual context in which Arabic, Tamazight, French, and English are all used. Language anxiety was examined regarding communication, fear of failure, and negative experiences. This study contributes to the literature by adding new features for multilingual learners to handle many cultures and different civilizations. In addition, this study indicates that students can reduce their language anxiety according to the number of languages they speak. Based on the analysis, the most crucial element was communicative anxiety, followed by fear of failure and negative experiences. The data point to an increase in communication anxiety among Algerian undergraduate students. These findings imply that a high degree of anxiety hinders students’ knowledge and performance and prevents them from taking advantage of their best possibilities (Lababidi, 2016; Zheng and Cheng, 2018; Djafri and Wimbarti, 2018). These findings confirm previous evidence that language anxiety has a significant communicative component (Koch and Terrell, 1991; Price, 1991; Horwitz et al., 1986). These findings differ from those of Manipuspika (2018), who discovered that negative evaluation was the most relevant dimension, followed by communicative and test anxiety. Differences in the three main sub-dimension of language anxiety were also investigated. These findings also contradict Kitano’s (2001) assumption that negative evaluations significantly impact language anxiety.

Additionally, the study demonstrated the impact of language proficiency levels (intermediate and advanced) on Algerian students’ language anxiety. Statistically significant differences in language anxiety between Arab and Amazigh students served as evidence for this. Arab and Amazigh students with advanced levels had less language anxiety than students with intermediate levels. This proves that students with lower language skills experience more anxiety while using a foreign language. Students’ language anxiety is moderated by their degree of language skills. The researchers argued that this result is unequivocal in the languages used between Arab and Amazigh people. This study supports Santos et al. (2015), who found substantial variations in communicative anxiety among participants with varying levels of English proficiency. The outcomes of this study conflict with the findings of Marcos-Llinás and Juan-Garau (2009), who found that students at advanced levels exhibited more significant levels of language anxiety than those at the starting and intermediate levels. According to Kitano (2001), students with advanced Japanese proficiency have higher anxiety levels than those with basic or intermediate proficiency. Tóth (2011) discovered that anxiety related to language learning is pervasive at all learning levels. As a result, advanced English language learners experience much linguistic anxiety. According to Şenel (2016), in both primary and fourth grades, students’ levels of concern about learning a foreign language were moderate, with students indicating somewhat more anxiety in the latter than in the former.

Furthermore, the study discovered connections between participants’ origins (Arab and Amazigh) and performance levels (intermediate and advanced). Intermediate-level students may push themselves into this environment to raise their language proficiency while also practicing speaking in English, which will reduce their anxiety. This supports that intermediate English-proficient Arab and Amazigh Algerian students have higher anxiety levels than advanced English-proficient students. Additionally, Amazigh students outperformed Arab students in language anxiety measures. Similar studies concentrating on ethnicity have also been conducted. A study by Ralston et al. (1991) found that Black students showed lower communicative anxiety than White students may be supported by these results when the origin of the students is taken into account. The results of this study also provide credence to Rajan et al. (2021) investigation of the effects of anxiety on intercultural dialog among Malaysian university students. The results showed that Malay students were between Chinese students, who were more anxious, and Indian students, who were less anxious. This study adds new information about the role that ethnicity based on historical features plays in language anxiety, which educational agents should consider. To fully comprehend the significance and impact of ethnicity on students’ language anxiety, further research is necessary, particularly on the Amazigh ethnic group, which is underrepresented in current literature.

Moreover, the data indicated significant differences in participants’ fear of failure across the three majors (Applied Sciences, Human Sciences, and Natural Sciences). However, the findings indicated no significant differences in communicative anxiety and negative experiences across the majors. These data imply that fear of failure is a substantial source of language anxiety among students. This conclusion pushes us to consider students’ personalities, particularly their inner drive, which may contribute to their failure-related anxiety and lack of enthusiasm for English. The current study’s findings are also consistent with the study of Gopang et al. (2015), who discovered significant variances in the fear of failure component (test anxiety) in their study; therefore, it is the primary source of language anxiety among students at Lasbela University in Baluchistan, Pakistan. However, the findings contradict those of Aydin (2008), who discovered that language anxiety among Turkish students is mainly caused by fear of failure or poor grades. These findings contradict those of Pizarro (2018), who discovered that language anxiety was predominantly caused by communication anxiety and fear of obtaining negative feedback among 67 undergraduate students learning English for particular objectives at the University of the Balearic Islands. According to this study, there were no statistically significant differences in communication anxiety between philology and biology students. However, the study showed statistically significant differences in one component connected to fear of receiving negative feedback. In other words, biology students worry less about being reprimanded for mistakes than philology students, who appear to have higher anxiety levels. These findings support the idea that students’ personalities may contribute to their concerns about the successful utilization of language. More studies are needed to completely comprehend the role of fear of failure, particularly in language anxiety, as well as its contributing factors.

Pedagogical implications

Based on the main findings of this study, there is a moderate level of anxiety among Algerian university students. This anxiety varied due to their ethnicity and language proficiency level. Therefore, considering ethnicity as one of the main variables of the current study, it is highly suggested that teachers in the Algerian tertiary context may pay special attention to the possibility that Arab students might feel more anxious than Amazigh students. The study’s findings showed that speaking multiple languages may reduce anxiety. The fewer anxiety learners experience, the higher their English proficiency could be.

Given the above, there are some general classroom practices that might be used to lessen anxiety. Encouraging students to prepare in advance, increasing language use, allowing students sufficient time to prepare their responses, and collaborating in pairs and groups can be considered among the most effective classroom techniques for reducing anxiety among learners. Preparing in advance for activities and tasks to be completed and presented in the classroom helps learners feel more confident. Students might feel more at ease and less anxious when they engage in different speaking exercises and assignments that do not place them in the spotlight. Exposure to the entire class may induce anxiety, such as the fear of making mistakes and the dread of receiving a poor grade. Learners frequently feel at ease and confident when performing in a group since they do not work in solitude and instead divide responsibilities. This activity could be soothing for those who can avoid being pointed out. It may also allow students to develop and discuss their ideas before presenting the activity to the class.

This study recommends that language and educational policymakers in Algeria implement the suggested classroom strategies to explain the anxiety phenomena to teachers and students in the country. Teachers should obtain training on how to lessen students’ anxiety and boost their communicative competence in light of current pedagogical trends.

Limitations and future research directions

This study has some limitations. While the scale’s structural validity and internal consistency were examined using Cronbach’s alpha, CR, AVE, and discriminant validity, predictive validity was not. The study also examined the critical variables of students. It did not attempt to assess variances depending on students’ demographic factors, such as gender, age, and past exposure to Arabic, Tamazight, French, and English. Future research should investigate these additional variables to detect linguistic anxiety more effectively. Moreover, the survey included 471 students from two colleges and three majors. This does not necessarily reflect the demographics or makeup of other universities. As a result, these findings cannot be applied to all Algerian students. Furthermore, adopting just one research approach (i.e., a survey) did not increase the credibility of the study compared to previous ones. Researchers should employ other research methodologies to learn more about learners’ viewpoints. In future research, interviews and classroom observations will help gather fresh insights on this issue. Following that, it is suggested that future studies include additional participants from different majors. Despite the fact that this study’s discussion considered the argument pertaining to other multilingual groups, there was no specified effect. Thus, future research should consider these differences and investigate further.

Conclusion

This study aimed to measure the extent of English language anxiety among a group of 471 Algerian undergraduates who spoke multiple languages, taking into account three crucial variables: ethnicity, language proficiency, and major. The study’s findings revealed that, on average, participants reported a moderate level of anxiety. Communication anxiety was the highest, followed by fear of failure and negative experiences. Fewer anxieties were observed with increased proficiency in English. However, there were no significant differences between the students’ majors and anxiety levels. It was discovered that Amazigh students were less worried about language proficiency than Arab students were. This suggests that the more languages a person speaks, the less likely they are to experience anxiety. The findings may help inform the university management departments to prepare the programs for reducing the language anxiety of students, which may be reflected in students’ achievements. In addition, it is ultimately up to educators, policymakers, and other relevant stakeholders to determine how the findings of the study will be incorporated into their English language practices.