Skip to main content

Cooperative Child Care among the Hadza: Situating Multiple Attachment in Evolutionary Context

  • Chapter
Attachment Reconsidered

Part of the book series: Culture, Mind, and Society ((CMAS))

Abstract

Mainstream models of attachment theory are mother-centered and do not address the evolutionary underpinnings of attachment or cross-cultural variation. Recently, there has been a call to arms to adopt a new and less monotropic paradigm that incorporates cultural diversity. Here, we address the need of attachment theory to incorporate evolutionary perspectives and models of multiple attachment by exploring patterns of cooperative care among the Hadza hunter-gatherers of Tanzania. Data from small-scale foraging populations add to the rapidly expanding corpus of work that now views attachment as both culturally influenced and biologically based.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aiello, Leslie C., and Cathy Key. 2002. “Energetic Consequences of Being a Homo erectus Female.” American Journal of Human Biology 14(5):551–565.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aiello, Leslie C., and Jonathan C. K. Wells. 2002. “Energetics and the Evolution of the Genus Homo.” Annual Review of Anthropology 31:323–338.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aiello, Leslie C., and Peter Wheeler. 1995. “The Expensive-Tissue Hypothesis: The Brain and the Digestive System in Human and Primate Evolution.” Current Anthropology 36(2):199–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ainsworth, Mary D. 1967. Infancy in Uganda. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ainsworth, Mary D. 1973. “The Development of Infant-Mother Attachment.” In Review of Child Development Research—Volume3, Bettye M. Caldwell and Henry N. Ricciuti, eds., pp. 1–94. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alvarez, Helen Perich. 2000. “Grandmother Hypothesis and Primate Life Histories.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 113(3):435–450.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barlow, Kathleen. 2001. “Working Mothers and the Work of Culture in a Papua New Guinea Society.” Ethos 29(1): 78–107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Belsky, Jay. 1997. “Attachment, Mating, and Parenting: An Evolutionary Interpretation.” Human Nature: An Interdisciplinary Biosocial Perspective 8:361–381.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bereczkei, Tamás, and Robin I. Dunbar. 1997. “Female-Biased Reproductive Strategies in Two Gypsy Populations.” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B 264: 17–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bereczkei, Tamás, and Robin I. Dunbar. 2002. “Helping-at-the-Nest and Reproduction in a Hungarian Gypsy Population.” Current Anthropology 43:804–809.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bobe, Rene, Anna K. Behrensmeyer, and Ralph E. Chapman. 2002. “Faunal Change, Environmental Variability, and Late Pliocene Hominin Evolution.” Journal of Human Evolution 42(4):475–497.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bogin, Barry. 1997. “Evolutionary Hypotheses for Human Childhoods.” Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 40:63–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bogin, Barry. 2008. Patterns of Human Growth. London: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bogin, Barry, and B. Holly Smith. 1995. “Evolution of the Human Life Cycle.” American Journal of Human Biology 8(6):703–716.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowlby, John. 1969. Attachment and Loss: Volume 1 Attachment. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bove, Riley B., Claudia R. Valeggia, and Peter T. Ellison. 2002. “Girl Helpers Time Allocation among the Toba of Argentina.” Human Nature: An Interdisciplinary Biosocial Perspective 13(4): 457–472.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bunn, Henry, Laurence E. Bartram, and Ellen M. Kroll. 1988. “Variability and Bone Assemblage Formation from Hadza Hunting, Scavenging, and Carcass Processing.” Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 7:412–457.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Charnov, Eric L., and David Berrigan. 1993. “Why Do Female Primates Have Such Long Lifespans and So Few Babies? Or Life in the Slow Lane.” Evolutionary Anthropology 1:191–194.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chisholm, James. 1996. “The Evolutionary Ecology of Attachment Organization.” Human Nature: An Interdisciplinary Biosocial Perspective 7(1): 1–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chisholm, James. 1999. Death, Hope and Sex: Steps to an Evolutionary Ecology of Mind and Morality. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clutton-Brock, Tim H. 2002. “Breeding Together: Kin Selection and Mutualism in Cooperative Vertebrates.” Science 296:69–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crittenden, Alyssa N. 2013. “The Hadza Hunter-Gatherers of Tanzania: Ethnography, Demography, and Importance for Human Evolution.” In Cradle of Humanity. Monograph of the Museo Nacional de Antropología: Madrid, Spain.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crittenden, Alyssa N., and Frank W. Marlowe. 2008. “Allomaternal Care among the Hadza of Tanzania.” Human Nature: An Interdisciplinary Biosocial Perspective 19(3): 249–262.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crognier, Emile, Abdellatif Baali, Mohamed-Kamal Hilali. 2001. “Do ‘helpers at the nest’ increase their parents’ reproductive success?” American Journal of Human Biology 13(3):365–373.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crognier, Emile, Mercedes Villena, and Enrique Vargas. 2002. “Helping Patterns and Reproductive Success in Aymara Communities.” American Journal of Human Biology 14(3):372–379.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Darwin, Charles. 1871. The Descent of Man. London: Gibson Square Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Demenocal, Peter B. 1995. “Plio-Pleistocene African Climate.” Science 270(5233):53–59.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Irenäus. 1989. Human Ethology. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellison, Peter T. 2003. “Energetics and Reproductive Effort.” American Journal of Human Biology 15(3):342–351.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Emlen, Stephen T. 1994. “Benefits, Constraints, and the Evolution of the Family.” Trends in Ecology and Evolution 9:282–285.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flinn, Mark V. 1989. “Household Competition and Female Reproductive Strategies in a Trinidadian Village.” In The Sociobiology of Sexual and Reproductive Strategies, Anne E. Rasa, Christian Vogel, and Eckart Voland, eds., pp. 206–233. London: Chapman and Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fosbrooke, Henry A. 1956. “A Stone Age Tribe in Tanganyika.” The South African Archaeological Bulletin 11(41):3–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fouts, Hillary N., and Robyn A. Brookshire. 2009. “Who Feeds Children? A Child’s-Eye-View of Caregiver Feeding Patterns among the Aka Foragers in Congo”. Social Science & Medicine 69: 285–292.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gettler, Lee T. 2010. “Direct Male Care and Hominin Evolution: Why Male-Child Interaction is More Than a Nice Social Idea.” American Anthropologist 112(1): 7–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gottlieb, Alma. 2004. The Afterlife is Where WE Come from: The Culture of Infancy in West Africa. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, William D. 1964. “The Genetical Evolution of Social Behaviour.” Journal of Theoretical Biology 7: 1–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hawkes, Kristen. 2006. “Slow Life Histories and Human Evolution.” In The Evolution of Human Life History, Kristen Hawkes and Richard R. Paine, eds., pp. 95–126. Santa Fe: School of American Research Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hawkes, Kristen, James F. O’Connell, and Nicholas G. Blurton-Jones. 1989. “Hardworking Hadza Grandmothers.” In Comparative Socioecology of Humans and Other Mammals, V. Standen and Robert Foley, eds., pp. 341–366. London: Basil Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hawkes, Kristen, James F. O’Connell, and Nicholas G. Blurton-Jones. 1997. “Hadza Women’s Time Allocation, Offspring Provisioning, and the Evolution of Long Postmenopausal Life Spans.” Current Anthropology 38(4):551–577.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heinicke, Christoph. 1995. “Expanding the Study of the Formation of the Child’s Relationships.” Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 60(2–3):300–309.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hewlett, Barry S., Michael E. Lamb, Birgit Leyendecker, and Axel Schölmerich. 2000. “Internal Working Models, Trust, and Sharing among Foragers.” Current Anthropology 41(2):287–297.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hill, Kim, and Hillard Kaplan. 1988. “Tradeoffs in Male and Female Reproductive Strategies among the Ache: Part 1.” In Human Reproductive Behaviour: A Darwinian, eds., pp. 277–289. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howes, Carolee. 1999. “Attachment Relationships in the Context of Multiple Caregivers.” In Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications, Jude Cassidy and Phillip R. Shaver, eds. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howes, Carollee, and Susan Spieker. 2008. “Attachment Relationships in the Context of Multiple Caregivers.” In The Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications. 2nd edition, J. Cassidy and P. Shaver, eds., pp. 317–332. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hrdy, Sarah Blaffer. 1999. Mother Nature: A History of Mothers, Infants, and Natural Selection. New York: Pantheon Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hrdy, Sarah Blaffer. 2005a. “Comes the Child Before the Man: How Cooperative Breeding and Prolonged Post-weaning Dependence Shaped Human Potentials.” In Hunter Gatherer Childhoods, Barry S. Hewlett and Michael E. Lamb, eds., pp. 65–91. Piscataway: Aldine Transaction.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hrdy, Sarah Blaffer. 2005b. “Evolutionary Context of Human Development: The Cooperative Breeding Model.” In Attachment and Bonding: A New Synthesis, Carol Sue Carter, Lieselotte Ahnert, Karin E. Grossman, Sarah Blaffer Hrdy, Micheal E. Lamb, Stephen W. Porges, and Nobert Sachser, eds., pp. 9–32. Cambridge: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hrdy, Sarah Blaffer. 2009. Mothers and Others: The Evolutionary Origins of Mutual Understanding. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ivey, Paula K. 2000. “Cooperative Reproduction in the Ituri Forest Hunter-Gatherers: Who Cares for Efe Infants?” Current Anthropology 41:856–866.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Janson, Charles H. and Carel van Schaik. 1993. “Ecological Risk Aversion in Juvenile Primates: Slow and Steady Wins the Race.” In Juvenile Primates: Life History, Development and Behavior, Michael E. Pereira and Lynn A. Fairbanks, eds., pp. 57–76. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, Nicholas G. Blurton, and Frank W. Marlowe. 2002. “Selection for Delayed Maturity: Does it Take 20 Years to Learn to Hunt and Gather?” Human Nature: An Interdisciplinary Biosocial Perspective 13(2):199–238.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaare, Bwire. 1994. “The Impact of Modernization Policies on the Hunter-Gatherer Hadzabe: The Case of Education and Language Policies of Post independence Tanzania.” In Key Issues in Hunter-Gatherer Research, Ernest S. Burch and Linda J. Ellanna, eds., pp. 315–331. Oxford: Berg Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan, Hillard. 1994. “Evolutionary Wealth Flows Theories of Fertility: Empirical Tests and New Models.” Population and Development Review 20:753–791.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan, Hillard. 1997. “The Evolution of the Human Life Course.” In Between Zeus and Salmon: The Biodemography of Longevity, Kenneth W. Wachter and Caleb Ellicott Finch, eds., pp. 175–211. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan, Hillard, Kim Hill, Jane Lancaster, and A. Magdalena Hurtado. 2000. “A Theory of Human Life History Evolution: Diet, Intelligence, and Longevity.” Evolutionary Anthropology 9(4):156–185.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan, Hillard, Kim Hill, Jane Lancaster, and A. Magdalena Hurtado. 2001. “The Embodied Capital Theory of Human Evolution.” In Reproductive Ecology and Human Evolution, Peter T. Ellison, ed. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine de Gruyter.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keller, Heidi, and Robin Harwood. 2009. “Culture and Development Pathways of Relationship Formation.” In Pathways on Human Development, Family, and Culture, S. Beckman and A. Aksu-Koc, eds. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keller, Heidi, and Hiltrud Otto. 2009. “The Cultural Socialization of Emotion Regulation during Infancy.” Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 40(6):1006–1011.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy, Gail E. 2005. “From the Ape’s Dilemma to the Weanling’s Dilemma: Early Weaning and Its Evolutionary Context.” Journal of Human Evolution 48:123–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Konner, Melvin. 2005. “Hunter-Gatherer Infancy and Childhood.” In Hunter-Gatherer Childhoods: Evolutionary, developmental and cultural perspectives, Barry S. Hewlett and Michael G. Lamb, eds., pp. 19–46. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Konner, Melvin. 2010. The Evolution of Childhood: Relationships, Emotion, Mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kramer, Karen L. 2005a. Maya Children: Helpers at the Farm. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kramer, Karen L . 2005b. “Child ren’s Help and the Pace of Reproduction: Cooperative Breeding in Humans.” Evolutionary Anthropology 14: 224–237.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kurland, Jeffrey A., and Corey S. Sparks. 2003. “Is There a Paleolithic Demography? Implications for Evolutionary Psychology and Sociobiology.” Paper presented at the 15th Annual Meeting of the Human Behavioral and Evolution Society Meetings, Lincoln, Nebraska: January 4–8, 2003.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kurtz, Stanley N. 1992. All the Mothers Are One: Hindu India and the Cultural Reshaping of Psychoanalysis. New York: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lamb, Michael E., and Charlie Lewis. 2010. “The Development and Significance of Father-Child Relationships in Two-Parent Families.” In The Role of the Father in Child Development. 5th edition, Michael E. Lamb, ed., pp. 94–153. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley and Sons.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, Phyllis C., Patricia Majluf, and Iain J. Gordon. 1991. “Growth, Weaning, and Maternal Investment from a Comparative Perspective.” Journal of Zoology 225:99–114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leigh, Steven R. 2001. “The Evolution of Human Growth.” Evolutionary Anthropology 10:223–236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leonard, William R., and Marcia L. Robertson. 1992. “Nutritional Requirements and Human Evolution: A Bioenergetics Model.” American Journal of Human Biology 4(2):179–195.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LeVine, Robert, and Karin Norman. 2001. “The Infant’s Acquisition of Culture Early Attachment Reexamined in Anthropological Perspective.” In The Psychology of Cultural Experience, Carmella C. Moore and Holly F. Mathews, eds., pp. 83–104. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • LeVine, Robert Alan, Sarah Levine, Suzanne Dixon, Amy Richman, P. Herbert Leiderman, and T. Berry Brazelton. 1996. Child Care and Culture: Lessons From Africa. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, Michael. 2005. “The Child and Its Family: The Social Network Model.” Human Development 48:8–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mabulla, Audax Z. 2007. “Hunting and Foraging in the Eyasi Basin, Northern Tanzania: Past, Present and Future Prospects.” African Archaeological Review 24:15–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mageo, Jeannette Marie. 1998. Theorizing Self in Samoa: Emotions, Genders, and Sexualities. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marlowe, Frank W. 1999. “Male Care and Mating Effort among Hadza Foragers.” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 46(1):57–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marlowe, Frank W. 2000. “Paternal Investment and the Human Mating System.” Behavioural Processes 51:45–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marlowe, Frank W. 2002. “Why the Hadza are Still Hunter-Gatherers.” In Ethnicity, Hunter Gatherers, and the “Other”: Association or Assimilation in Africa, Susan Kent, ed., pp. 247–275. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marlowe, Frank W. 2003. “A Critical Period for Provisioning by Hadza Men: Implications for Pair Bonding.” Evolution and Human Behavior 24(3): 217–229.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marlowe, Frank W. 2005. “Who Tends Hadza Children?” In Hunter-Gatherer Childhoods, Barry S. Hewlett and Michael E. Lamb, eds., pp. 177–190. Piscataway: Aldine Transaction.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marlowe, Frank W. 2006. “Central Place Provisioning: The Hadza as an Example.” In Feeding Ecology of Apes and Other Primates: Ecological, Physiological, and Behavioural Aspects, Gottfried Hohmann, Martha Robbins, and Christophe Boesch, eds., pp. 359–377. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marlowe, Frank W. 2010. The Hadza Hunter-Gatherers of Tanzania. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, Joyce A., Brady E. Hamilton, Paul D. Sutton, Stephanie J. Ventura, Fay Menacker, and Martha L. Munson. 2003. Births: Final Data for 2002. National Vital Statistics Reports 52. Hyatsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • McDowell, William. 1981. “A Brief History of the Mangola Hadza.” Mbulu District Development Directorate, Mbulu District, Arusha Region.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mead, Margaret. 1928. Coming of Age in Samoa. New York: William Morrow.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meehan, Courtney L. 2005. “The Effects of Residential Locality on Parental and Alloparental Investment among the Aka Foragers of the Central African Republic.” Human Nature: An Interdisciplinary Biosocial Perspective 16(1):58–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morelli, Gilda, and Fred Rothbaum. 2007. “Situating the Child in Context: Attachment Relationships and Self- Regulation in Different Cultures.” In Handbook of Cultural Psychology, S. Kitayama and D. Cohen, eds., pp. 500–527. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Munroe, Ruth H., and Robert L. Munroe. 1971. “Household Density and Infant Care in an East African Society.” Journal of Social Psychology 83(1):3–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pagel, Mark D., and Paul H. Harvey. 1993. “Evolution of the Juvenile Period in Mammals.” In Juvenile Primates: Life History, Development and Behavior, Michael E. Pereira and Lynn A. Faribanks, eds., pp. 28–37. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Panter-Brick, Catherine. 1989. “Motherhood and Subsistence Work: The Tamang of Rural Nepal.” Human Ecology 17(2):205–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Potts, Richard. 1998. “Environmental Hypotheses of Hominin Evolution.” Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 41:93–136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Purvis, Andy, and Paul H. Harvey. 1994. “Mammalian Life History Evolution: A Comparative Test of Charnov’s Model.” Journal of Zoology 237:259–283.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reed, Kaye E. 1997. “Early Hominin Evolution and Ecological Change through the African Plio-Pleistocene.” Journal of Human Evolution 32(2–3):289–322.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robson, Shannen L., Carel P. van Schaik, and Kristen Hawkes. 2006. “The Derived Features of Human Life History.” In The Evolution of Human Life History, Richard L. Paine and Kristen Hawkes, eds., pp. 17–44. Santa Fe: School of American Research Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robson, Shannen L., and Bernard Wood. 2008. “Hominin Life History: Reconstruction and Evolution.” Journal of Anatomy 212:394–425.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rothbaum, Fred, Martha Pott, Hiroshi Azuma, Kazuo Miyake, and John Weisz. 2000. “The Development of Close Relationships in Japan and the United States: Paths of Symbiotic Harmony and Generative Tension.” Child Development 71(5):1121–1142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sear, Rebecca, and David Coall. 2011. “How Much Does Family Matter? Cooperative Breeding and the Demographic Transition.” Population and Development Review 37 (Supplement):81–112.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sear, Rebecca, Ruth Mace, and Ian A. McGregor. 2000. “Maternal Grandmothers Improve Nutritional Status and Survival of Children in Rural Gambia.” Proceedings of the Royal Society London Series B 267:1641–1647.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sear, Rebecca, Fiona Steele, Ian A. McGregor, and Ruth Mace. 2002. “The Effects of Kin on Child Mortality in Rural Gambia.” Demography 39:43–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sellen, Dan. 2006. “Lactation, Complementary Feeding, and Human Life History.” The Evolution of Human Life History, Kristen Hawkes and Richard R. Paine, eds., pp. 155–196. Santa Fe, New Mexico: SAR Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seymour, Susan. 2004. “Multiple Caretaking of Infants and Young Children: An Area in Critical Need of a Feminist Psychological Anthropology.” Ethos 32(4):538–556.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simpson, Jeffry A., and Jay Belsky. 2008. “Attachment Theory within a Modern Evolutionary Framework.” In Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications, Jude Cassidy and Phillip Shaver, eds., pp. 131–157. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, B. Holly. 1991. “Dental Development and the Evolution of Life History in Homininae.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 86:157–174.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, B. Holly. 1992. “Life History and the Evolution of Human Maturation.” Evolutionary Anthropology 1:134–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stearns, Stephen. 1992. The Evolution of Life Histories. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomasello, Michael. 1999. “Having Intentions, Understanding Intentions, and Understanding Communicative Intentions.” In Developing Theories of Intention: Social Understanding and Self-Control, Philip David Zelazo, Janet Wilde Astington, and David R. Olson, eds, pp. 63–75. Mahawah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tronick, Edward Z., Gilda Morelli, and Steven Winn. 1987. “Multiple Caretaking of Efe (Pygmy) Infants.” American Anthropologist 89(1):96–106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turke, Paul. 1998. “‘Helpers at the Nest’: Childcare Networks on the Ifaulk.” In Human Reproductive Behaviour: A Darwinian Perspective, Laura Betzig, Monique Borgerhoff-Mulder, and Paul Turke, eds., pp. 173–188. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Ijzendoorn, Marinus H., and Abraham Sagi-Schwartz. 2008. “Cross-Cultural Patterns of Attachment: Universal and Contextual Dimensions.” In Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications (Second Edition), Jude Cassidy and Phillip R. Shaver, eds., pp. 713–734. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vincent, Anne. 1985. “Plant Foods in Savanna Environments: A Preliminary Report of Tubers Eaten by the Hadza of Northern Tanzania.” World Archaeology 17(2):131–148.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wall-Scheffler, Cara M., K. Geiger, and Karen L. Steudel-Numbers. 2007. “Infant Carrying: The Role of Increased Locomotory Costs in Early Tool Development.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 133(2):841–846.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wall-Scheffler, Cara M., and Marcella J. Myers. 2013. “Reproductive Costs for Everyone: How Female Loads Impact Human Mobility Strategies.” Journal of Human Evolution 64(5):448–456.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weisner, Thomas S. 1987. “Socialization for Parenthood in Sibling Caretaking Societies.” In Parenting across the Life Span, Jane Lancaster, Alice Rossi, Jeanne Altmann, and Lonnie Sherrod, eds., pp. 237–270. New York: Aldine Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weisner, Thomas S. 2005. “Attachment as a Cultural and Ecological Problem with Pluralistic Solutions.” Human Development 48:89–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weisner, Thomas S., and R. Gallimore. 1977. “My Brother’s Keeper: Child and Sibling Caretaking.” Current Anthropology 89:97–106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whiting, Beatrice B. 1963. Six Cultures: Studies of Child Rearing. New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whiting, John W. M. 1941. Becoming a Kwoma: Teaching and Learning in a New Guinea Tribe. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodburn, James. 1968. “Stability and Flexibility in Hadza Residential Groupings.” In Man the Hunter, Richard B. Lee and Irven DeVore, eds., pp. 103–110. Chicago, IL: Aldine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wrangham, Richard W., James H. Jones, Greg Laden, David Pilbeam, and Nancy Lou Conklin-Brittain. 1999. “The Raw and the Stolen: Cooking and the Ecology of Human Origins.” Current Anthropology 40(5):567–594.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zeifman, Debra, and Cindy Hazan. 2008. “Pair Bonds as Attachments: Reevaluating the Evidence.” In Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications, Jude Cassidy and Phillip R. Shaver, eds., pp. 436–455. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors

Editor information

Naomi Quinn Jeannette Marie Mageo

Copyright information

© 2013 Naomi Quinn and Jeannette Marie Mageo

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Crittenden, A.N., Marlowe, F.W. (2013). Cooperative Child Care among the Hadza: Situating Multiple Attachment in Evolutionary Context. In: Quinn, N., Mageo, J.M. (eds) Attachment Reconsidered. Culture, Mind, and Society. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137386724_3

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics