Abstract
Gosin analyzes coverage of Celia Cruz’s death to consider how her blackness has been integrated, or not, within larger conceptions of Latinidad. She argues that embedded within portrayals of Cruz as a pan-Latina icon are stereotypes related to Black womanhood, including hypersexuality and ideas of the “mammy.” Gosin’s paper uses Cruz to consider how blackness and Black womanhood are represented within the Latino imaginary.
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Notes
- 1.
Andrea Elliott. “Emotion and Song Prevail At Tribute to Queen of Salsa,” The New York Times, July 22, 2003, B4. The description was adapted from this source.
- 2.
A search in the online database of the Miami Herald between the dates July 17, 2003 (the date of her death) and the end of the year (December 2003) for the search term “Celia Cruz” yielded 77 articles. A search with the same parameters in the online database of The New York Times yielded 206 articles. The articles were examined using content analysis to determine the prevailing themes used to describe Cruz.
- 3.
Homi K. Bhabha, The Location of Culture (London; New York: Routledge, 1994), 67.
- 4.
Patricia Hill Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment (New York: Routledge, 2000), 67–68.
- 5.
Yen Le Espiritu, Asian American Women and Men: Labor, Laws, and Love (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2008), 98.
- 6.
Cristina G. Mora, Making Hispanics: How Activists, Bureaucrats, and Media Constructed a New American (Chicago; London: The University of Chicago Press, 2014); Cristina Beltrán, The Trouble with Unity: Latino Politics and the Creation of Identity (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2010); William V. Flores and Rina Benmayor, Latino Cultural Citizenship: Claiming Identity, Space and Politics (Boston: Beacon, 1997).
- 7.
Shalini Puri, The Caribbean Postcolonial: Social Equality, Post-Nationalism, and Cultural Hybridity (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 1, 13.
- 8.
Puri, The Caribbean Postcolonial; Suzanne Oboler, Ethnic Labels, Latino Lives: Identity and the Politics of (Re)presentation in the United States (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995); Peter Wade, “Race and Class: The Case of South American Blacks,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 2, no. 8 (1985).
- 9.
Mora, Making Hispanics; Beltrán, Trouble with Unity; Arlene Dávila, Latinos Inc. (Berkeley; Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 2001); Arlene Dávila, Latino Spin: Public Image and the Whitewashing of Race (New York: New York University Press, 2008); Nilda Flores-Gonzalez. “The Racialization of Latinos: The Meaning of Latino Identity for the Second Generation,” Latino Studies Journal 10, no. 3 (1999); Oboler, Ethnic Labels.
- 10.
Flores and Benmayor, Latino Cultural Citizenship.
- 11.
Vielka Cecilia Hoy, “Negotiating Among Invisibilities,” in The Afro-Latino Reader: History and Culture in the United States, ed. Miriam Jiménez Román and and Juan Flores (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2010); Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, “Reflections About Race by a Negrito Acomplejao,” in The Afro-Latino Reader: History and Culture in the United States, ed. Miriam Jiménez Román and Juan Flores (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2010); Beltrán, The Trouble with Unity: Latino Politics and the Creation of Identity; Miriam Jiménez Román, “Looking at That Middle Ground: Racial Mixing as Panacea?” Wadabagei: A Journal of the Caribbean & Its Diasporas 8, no. 1 (2005); Clara E. Rodríguez, Changing Race: Latinos, the Census, and the History of Ethnicity in the United States (New York: New York University Press, 2000).
- 12.
John R. Logan, “How Race Counts for Hispanic Americans,” in The Afro-Latino Reader: History and Culture in the United States, ed. Miriam Jiménez Román and and Juan Flores (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2010); Jorge Duany, “Rethinking the Popular: Recent Essays on Caribbean Music and Identity” Latin American Music Review 17, no. 2 (1996); Rodríguez, Changing Race; William A. J. Darity and Patrick L. Mason, “Evidence on Discrimination in Employment: Codes of Color, Codes of Gender,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 12, no. 2 (1998); Denton, Nancy A., and Douglas S. Massey, “Racial Identity Among Caribbean Hispanics: The Effect of Double Minority Status on Residential Segregation,” American Sociological Review 54, no. 5 (1989).
- 13.
Rodríguez, Changing Race.
- 14.
Suzanne Oboler, “Racializing Latinos in the United States: Towards a New Research Paradigm,” in Identities on the Move: Transnational Processes in the North American and Caribbean Basin, ed. Liliana R. Goldin (Albany; Austin: Institute for Mesoamerican Studies, University of Texas, 2000); Nancy Priscilla Naro, Blacks, Coloureds and National Identity in 19 th Century Latin America (London: Institute of Latin America Studies, 2003); David Howard, Coloring the Nation: Race and Ethnicity in the Dominican Republic (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2001).
- 15.
Puri, The Caribbean Postcolonial, 2.
- 16.
Angel Rama, The Lettered City. trans. John Charles Chasteen (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1996) quoted in Jill Lane Blackface Cuba, 1840–1895 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005), 4.
- 17.
Jiménez Román, “That Middle Ground,” 68.
- 18.
Marta I. Cruz-Janzen, “Latinegras: Desired Women–Undesirable Mothers, Daughters, Sisters, and Wives,” in The Afro-Latino Reader: History and Culture in the United States, ed. Miriam Jiménez Román and and Juan Flores (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2010); Claudette Williams, Charcoal and Cinnamon: The Politics of Color in Spanish Caribbean Literature (Gainesville, Fl: University Press of Florida, 2000); Vera Kutizinski, Sugar’s Secrets: Race and the Erotics of Cuban Nationalism (Charlottesville; London: The University Press of Virginia, 1993).
- 19.
Jiménez Román, “That Middle Ground,” 72.
- 20.
“Fans Gather In The Street To Pay Their Respects Before Cruz’s Funeral.” Miami Herald, July 22, 2003, 4A.
- 21.
Mirta Ojito. “For Cuban Exiles, the End of an Era,” The New York Times July 20, 2003, 1, 18.
- 22.
Jordan Levin and Luisa Yanez, “Admirers Remember ‘Icon’ To Latin America,” Miami Herald, July 18, 2003, 25A.
- 23.
René Rodríguez. “Her Music Was Part Of Us.” Miami Herald, July 18, 2003, 1A.
- 24.
Jon Pareles, “Celia Cruz, Petite Powerhouse of Latin Music, Dies at 77:[Obituary (Obit)],” New York Times, July 17, 2003 B9; Lydia Martin, “The Life of a Legend—‘There Can Never Be Another Celia Cruz.’ ” Miami Herald, July 19, 2003,12CC; Frances Negrón-Muntaner, “Celia’s Shoes,” in From Bananas to Buttocks: The Latina Body in Popular Film and Culture, ed. Myra Mendible (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2007).
- 25.
The Smithsonian installed an entire museum exhibit about her life in 2005. The Azucar! The Life and Music of Celia Cruz exhibit includes several of her dresses, shoes, and information about her life and career.
- 26.
F. R. Aparicio, “The Blackness of Sugar: Celia Cruz and the Performance of (Trans)nationalism,” Cultural Studies 13, no. 2 (1999); Christina D. Abreu, “Celebrity, ‘Crossover,’ and Cubanidad: Celia Cruz as ‘La Reina de Salsa,’ 1971–2003,” Latin American Music Review 28, no. 1 (2007); Negrón-Muntaner, “Celia’s Shoes.”
- 27.
Aparicio, “Blackness of Sugar,” 234.
- 28.
Abreu, “Celebrity, ‘Crossover,’ and Cubanidad,” 97.
- 29.
Ibid.
- 30.
Aparicio, “Blackness of Sugar,” 230.
- 31.
Duany, “Rethinking the Popular,” 182; Deborah Pacini Hernandez, Oye Como Va!: Hybridity and Identity in Latino Popular Music (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2010).
- 32.
Jocelyne Guilbault, “Interpreting World Music: A Challenge in Theory and Practice,” Popular Music 16, no. 1 (1997), 32.
- 33.
Celia Cruz, who is Cuban, often considered her music “son.” Negrón-Muntaner, “Celia’s Shoes.” For salsa’s Cuban origins, see Raúl A Fernández, “The Course of U.S. Cuban Music: Margin and Mainstream,” Cuban Studies 24, (1994). Many of the book length studies regarding salsa and identity are from the Puerto Rican perspective and make claims about salsa’s Puerto Rican origin. According to Frances Aparicio, Cuban musicians who had immigrated to New York were playing the Cuban Son, however, after the Cuban Revolution, the USA banned Cuban music. This facilitated the mixing of the styles with other music forms, i.e. jazz in the barrios of Puerto Rico. See Frances Aparicio, Listening to Salsa: Gender, Latin Popular Music, and Puerto Rican Cultures (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1998); and Peter Manuel, Caribbean Currents: Caribbean Music from Rumba to Reggae (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2006).
- 34.
Aparicio, Listening to Salsa, 66.
- 35.
George Lipsitz. Dangerous Crossroad: Popular Music, Postmodernism, and the Poetics of Place (New York; London: Verso, 1994) cited in Aparicio, “Blackness of Sugar,” 231.
- 36.
Ingrid Monson, The African Diaspora: A Musical Perspective (New York: Garland Publishing, 2000); Pacini Hernandez, Oye Como Va!
- 37.
Monson, The African Diaspora, 1.
- 38.
Petra Rivera-Rideau, “From Carolina to Loíza: Race, Place and Puerto Rican Racial Democracy,” Identities: Global Studies in Culture and Power 20, no. 5 (2013); Pacini Hernandez, Oye Como Va!
- 39.
The Latin music industry also commonly celebrates African-based musical practices, but tends to hold up a mixed race Latino ideal in both the artists that are popular and in the way it imagines its audience (see Pacini Hernandez Oye Como Va!).
- 40.
Enrique Fernandez, “Joyful Force of Celia Cruz Will Never Be Forgotten,” Miami Herald, July 20, 2003, 7M.
- 41.
Ibid.
- 42.
Negrón-Muntaner, “Celia’s Shoes,” 107.
- 43.
Williams, Charcoal and Cinnamon; K. Sue Jewell, From Mammy to Miss America and Beyond: Cultural Images and the Shaping of U.S. Social Policy (New York: Routledge, 1993).
- 44.
For more on Cruz’s “ugliness,” see Negrón-Muntaner “Celia’s Shoes.”
- 45.
Williams, Charcoal and Cinnamon.
- 46.
Tanya Kateri Hernández, “The Buena Vista Social Club: The Racial Politics of Nostalgia,” in Latino/a Popular Culture, ed. Michelle Habell-Pallán et al. (New York; London: New York University Press, 2002), 66–67.
- 47.
“The Life Of A Legend—‘There Can Never Be Another Celia Cruz.’” Miami Herald, July 19, 2003,12CC.
- 48.
Raúl A. Fernández, From Afro-Cuban Rhythms to Latin Jazz (Berkeley: University of California Press; Chicago: Center for Black Music Research, Columbia College, 2006).
- 49.
Jean Muteba Rahier “The Study of Latin American ‘Racial Formations’: Different Approaches and Different Contexts,” Latin American Research Review 39, no. 3 (2004); Alejandro de la Fuente, A Nation For All: Race, Inequality, and Politics in Twentieth Century Cuba (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001).
- 50.
In the music industry, the “exotic” Africanness of Cuban music has also been used as rationale to market it as more exotic “world music” rather than “Latin music.” Such a move signals a view that the Africanness of Cuban music makes it incongruent with a “Latin” identification or market. We can also see that Africanness and exoticism operated in slightly different ways between these genres (see Pacini Hernandez Oye Como Va!).
- 51.
Donna Goldstein, Laughter Out of Place: Race, Class, Violence, and Sexuality in a Rio Shantytown (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 125; see also Kia Lilly Caldwell, Negras in Brazil: Re-envisioning Black Women, Citizenship, and the Politics of Identity (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2007), 61.
- 52.
Oscar Hijuelos, “A Song of Love for Celia:[Op-Ed]”. The New York Times, July 23, 2003, A19.
- 53.
María Teresa Vélez, Drumming for the Gods: The Life and Times of Felipe García Villamil, Santero, Palero, and Abakuá (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2000); Stephan Palmié, The Cooking of History: How Not to Study Afro-Cuban Religion (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2013).
- 54.
Abreu, “Celebrity, ‘Crossover,’ and Cubanidad,” 111.
- 55.
Gema Guevara, “Arsenio and Olga: Situating Blackness in the Cuban/Cuban American Imaginary,” in Una Ventana a Cuba y los Estudios Cubanos, A window into Cuba and Cuban Studies, ed. Amalia Cabezas et al. (Puerto Rico: University of California-Cuba Academic Initiative and Ediciones Callejon, 2010); Aparicio, “Blackness of Sugar.”
- 56.
Aparicio,“Blackness of Sugar.”
- 57.
Ibid., 229–230.
- 58.
Danielle P. Clealand, “When Ideology Clashes with Reality: Racial Discrimination and Black Identity in Contemporary Cuba,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 36, no. 10 (2013).
- 59.
Nancy Raquel Mirabal, “ ‘Ser de aqui’: Beyond the Cuban exile model,” Latino Studies 1 (2003); Emily H. Skop, “Race and Place in the Adaptation of Mariel Exiles,” International Migration Review 35, no. 2 (2001); Felix Roberto Masud-Piloto, From Welcomed Exiles to Illegal Immigrants: Cuban Migration to the U.S., 1959–1995 (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 1996).
- 60.
See Guevara, “Arsenio and Olga,” for arguments on how, through her political views and relationship to the Cuban exile community, Cruz was in effect, “whitened.”
- 61.
Jordan Levin, “Celia’s Fans Air Their Tributes.” Miami Herald, July 19, 2003, 1B.
- 62.
Jordan Levin and Luisa Yanez. “Few Words, Deep Sadness As Cuba Deals With The Loss.” Miami Herald, July 18, 2003, 26A.
- 63.
Lydia Martin, “Celia Cruz Honored By Admirers And Heirs As Latin Music Queen.” Miami Herald, March 14, 2003, 4A.
- 64.
Collins, Black Feminist Thought; Lisa M. Anderson, Mammies No More: The Changing Image of Black Women on Stage and Screen (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 1997); Donald Bogle, Toms, Coons, Mulattoes, Mammies, and Bucks: An Interpretive History of Blacks in American Films (Bloomsbury Academic, 2001); Jewell, From Mammy to Miss.
- 65.
Collins, Black Feminist Thought.
- 66.
Oscar Hijuelos. “A Song of Love for Celia:[Op-Ed]” New York Times, July 23, 2003, A19. Frances Negrón-Muntaner (2007, p. 105) makes reference to this quote in a discussion of how Cruz’ strategic presentation of herself through styling came at the price of accepting the maternal black woman stereotype (“Celia’s Shoes,” 105). Cruz used her styling to empower her body and face which she perceived to be “ugly” in order to look more appealing to audiences. Negrón-Muntaner uses Hijuelos’ piece as example of how the maternal black woman stereotype gets deployed.
- 67.
Abreu, “Celebrity, ‘Crossover,’ and Cubanidad,” 99.
- 68.
Ibid.; Negrón-Muntaner, “Celia’s Shoes.”
- 69.
Mora, Making Hispanics; Beltrán, Trouble with Unity; Flores and Benmayor, Latino Cultural Citizenship.
- 70.
Cruz-Janzen, “Latinegras.”
- 71.
Anani Dzidzienyo and Suzanne Oboler, Neither Enemies Nor Friends: Latinos, Blacks, Afro-Latinos (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005).
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Gosin, M. (2016). The Death of “la Reina de la Salsa:” Celia Cruz and the Mythification of the Black Woman. In: Rivera-Rideau, P., Jones, J., Paschel, T. (eds) Afro-Latin@s in Movement. Afro-Latin@ Diasporas. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-59874-5_4
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