Abstract
Malcomson analyzes discourses about blackness that circulate in the danzón community in Veracruz, Mexico. Through a combination of ethnographic research and historical and musical analysis, Malcomson demonstrates how blackness is rendered both local and foreign, and positive and negative. Through examining these contradictions, she illustrates how ideas about race, blackness, and Mexican identity circulate in the racial imaginary of Veracruz, Mexico.
My thanks go to Mónica Moreno Figueroa, Henry Stobart, David Lehmann, Elisabeth Cunin, Ciro Carlos Mizuno Gúzman, Margarita Castro Olvera, Gonzalo Hernández Lara, Jennifer Jones, Petra Rivera-Rideau, Tianna Paschel, Monika Gosin and conferees at the Afro-Latinos in Movement conference (funded and hosted by the University of Notre Dame) for detailed comments on versions of this chapter. Funding for this research was generously provided by the UK Arts & Humanities Research Council.
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Notes
- 1.
This is illustrated in relation to nation in Peru, Cuba, and Columbia by Heidi Carolyn Feldman, Black Rhythms of Peru: Reviving African Musical Heritage in the Black Pacific (Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press, 2006); Robin D. Moore, Nationalizing Blackness: Afrocubanismo and Artistic Revolution in Havana, 1920–1940 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997); Peter Wade, Music, Race and Nation: Música Tropical in Colombia (Chicago; London: University of Chicago Press, 2000).
- 2.
The Port of Veracruz is situated in the State of Veracruz, Mexico. The Port is often referred to simply as Veracruz by locals, and I follow this practice here.
- 3.
George Yúdice, The Expediency of Culture (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003).
- 4.
To ease reading, I refrain from using scare quotes after the first iteration of words such as “race,” “black” and “white.” However, I want to note that these terms are problematic, that I do not support their use as factual, but rather as social constructions that serve to legitimate social relations of oppression, inequality and exclusion based on presumptions of phenotypical variations amongst humans.
- 5.
See Wade, Music, Race and Nation for an analysis of how both homogeneity and heterogeneity were at the heart of nationalist projects of mestizaje.
- 6.
As Vasconcelos famously argued in relation to Mexico in The Cosmic Race, 1925. La Raza Cósmica (México D.F.: Editorial Planeta, 1948).
- 7.
Within the State of Veracruz there is, however, regional variation and, Jones (2013) proposes, a rural–urban divide in relationships to blackness. “‘Mexicans Will Take the Jobs That Even Blacks Won’t Do’: An Analysis of Blackness, Regionalism and Invisibility in Contemporary Mexico”, Ethnic and Racial Studies 36, no. 10 (2013).
- 8.
For further analyses of histories of danzón and danzón expertise in Cuba and Mexico see Alejandro L. Madrid and Robin D. Moore, Danzón: Circum-Caribbean Dialogues in Music and Dance (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013); Hettie Malcomson, “The ‘Routes’ and ‘Roots’ of Danzón: A Critique of the History of a Genre,” Popular Music 30, no. 2 (2011); Hettie Malcomson, “Aficionados, Academics, and Danzón Expertise: Exploring Hierarchies in Popular Music Knowledge Production,” Ethnomusicology 58, no. 2 (2014); Peter Manuel, Creolizing Contradance in the Caribbean (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2009); Sue Miller, Cuban Flute Style: Interpretation and Improvisation (Lanham: Scarecrow Press, 2013).
- 9.
Leroi Jones, “The Changing Same (R&B and New Black Music),” in Black Music (New York: Morrow, 1966) 180–211.
- 10.
Ruth Frankenberg, White Women, Race Matters: The Social Construction of Whiteness (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993); Anoop Nayak, “Critical Whiteness Studies,” Sociology Compass 1, no. 2 (2007).
- 11.
Philip Tagg, “Open Letter: ‘Black Music,’ ‘Afro-American Music’ and ‘European Music,’” Popular Music 8, no. 3 (1989).
- 12.
Osvaldo Castillo Faílde, Miguel Faílde, Creador Musical del Danzón (La Habana: Editorial Consejo Nacional de Cultura, 1964).
- 13.
Madrid and Moore, Danzón; Malcomson, “‘Routes’ and ‘Roots’”; Moore, Nationalizing Blackness.
- 14.
For an analysis of Yoruba exchanges, see J. Lorand Matory, “Afro-Atlantic Culture: On the Live Dialogue between Africa and the Americas,” in Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience, edited by Kwame Anthony Appiah and Henry Louis Gates Jr. (New York: Basic Civitas Books, 1999).
- 15.
INEGI. “Instituto Nacional de Estadística Geografía E Informatica: Censo de Población y Vivienda 2010,” accessed September 30, 2011, http://www.inegi.org.mx/est/contenidos/proyectos/ccpv/cpv2010/default.aspx.
- 16.
Ibid.
- 17.
See Hettie Malcomson, “New Generations, Older Bodies: Danzón, Age and ‘Cultural Rescue’ in the Port of Veracruz, Mexico,” Popular Music 31, no. 2 (2012).
- 18.
While it was argued by some (such as Ulloa Anasco, 1992) that danzón was the “National Dance of Cuba” after the Revolution in 1960, 40 years after the peak of its popularity, it is now not generally considered Cuba’s national music (the son being a more popular candidate). Francisco Salvador Ulloa Anasco, “‘El Danzón Baile Nacional’ in Perfil de Santiago,” Suplemento del Periódico Sierra Maestra, Santiago de Cuba, 1992.
- 19.
Regarding transformations to danzón instrumentation, musical and choreographic performance practice in Mexico, see Malcomson, “‘Routes’ and ‘Roots.’”
- 20.
“Hay un dicho, no sé si tú lo sepas: ‘que es más padre el que cría que el que engendra’. […] Entonces Cuba lo sacó, lo formó, lo parió, pero nosotros lo recogimos y lo hemos alimentado 117 años. […] Somos más padres nosotros, los veracruzanos, porque lo hemos sostenido tantos años y [los Cubanos] lo dejaron morir. […] En Mérida no fue muy bien recibido, pero nosotros, los veracruzanos, todo lo recibimos bien, y más que si se trata de bailar, entonces los veracruzanos lo adoptamos.”
- 21.
“Jarocha/o” is often employed to denote people from the Port of Veracruz, but more precisely means people from the Papaloapan valley just south of the Port. The term “Porteño” designates people specifically from the Port, while “veracruzano” is used to refer to people from the Port and/or the State of Veracruz.
Jesús Flores y Escalante, Salón México: Historia Documental y Gráfica del Danzón en México (México D.F.: Asociación Mexicana de Estudios Fonográficos, 1993), 39.
- 22.
Bernardo García Díaz, “Danzón y Son: Desde Cuba a Veracruz (1880–1930),” in México y el Caribe: Vínculos, Intereses, Region, edited by Laura Muñoz (México D.F.: Instituto Mora, 2002).
- 23.
Ibid.
- 24.
The instrumentation of these early ensembles often included clarinets, trumpet/cornet, trombone, ophicleide, euphonium, bass, timbales and güiro.
- 25.
For information on Spanish, Lebanese, German, Japanese and other migrants, see Sara Sefchovich, Dolores Pla Brugat, Bernardo García Díaz, et al. Veracruz: Puerto de Llegada (Veracruz: H. Ayuntamiento de Veracruz, 2000).
- 26.
Christina A. Sue, Land of the Cosmic Race: Race Mixture, Racism, and the Blackness in Mexico (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2013).
- 27.
Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Double Consciousness and Modernity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993).
- 28.
Bernardo García Díaz, “Danzón y Son: Desde Cuba a Veracruz (1880–1930),” in México y el Caribe: Vínculos, Intereses, Region, edited by Laura Muñoz (México D.F.: Instituto Mora, 2002), 271.
- 29.
Ibid., 273.
- 30.
Alan Knight, Mexico: The Colonial Era (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
- 31.
See Ivan Van Sertima, They Came before Columbus: The African Presence in Ancient America (New York: Random House, 1977).
- 32.
Sue, Land of the Cosmic Race, 122.
- 33.
Jones, ‘Mexicans will take the jobs that even blacks won’t do,’ 1570.
- 34.
Sarah Daynes, “The Musical Construction of the Diaspora: The Case of Reggae and Rastafari,” in Music, Space and Place: Popular Music and Cultural Identity, edited by Sheila Whiteley, Andy Bennett, and Stan Hawkins (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2004).
- 35.
Patrick J. Carroll, Blacks in Colonial Veracruz: Race, Ethnicity, and Regional Development (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2001).
- 36.
Juan Antonio Flores Martos, Portales de Múcara: Una Etnografía del Puerto de Veracruz (Xalapa, Mexico: Universidad Veracruzana, 2004), 40–1.
- 37.
Peggy Phelan. Unmarked: The Politics of Performance (London: Routledge, 1996).
- 38.
“Morena/o” “prieta/o” and “güera/o” are commonly used, relative terms denoting skin color. “Morena/o” (“darker than” or “brownness”) and “prieta/o” (“dark”) allude to people with darker skin (relative to others); while “güera/o” implies lighter, “whiter,” blonder coloring. While “prieta/o” can have pejorative overtones, “güera/o” is employed extensively in the Port of Veracruz as a compliment often by retailers (and famously by ice-cream sellers in the Calle Manuel Gutiérrez Zamora) to refer to people regardless of their coloring, but emphasizing their privileged position as potential consumers. Here privilege is equated with “race” in a particularly striking manner.
Roger N. Lancaster, “Skin Color, Race, and Racism in Nicaragua,” in Race and Ethnicity. Comparative and Theoretical Approaches, edited by John Stone and Rutledge M. Dennis (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell, 2003); Mónica G. Moreno Figueroa, “Historically Rooted Transnationalism: Slightedness and the Experience of Racism in Mexican Families,” Journal of Intercultural Studies 29, no. 3 (2008).
- 39.
Peter Wade, Race and Ethnicity in Latin America (London: Pluto Press, 1997), 15.
- 40.
In Mexico, the term “chino” is multivalent and includes reference to China; a specific form of hair; and was employed as a racial category in colonial times. In colonial caste paintings, such as those of the Colección del Museo Nacional de México, “chino/a” refers to the offspring of a morisca/o (the offspring of a mulata/o with Spaniard) with a Spaniard. Gonzalo Aguirre Beltrán, La Población Negra de México: Estudio Etnohistórico (México D.F.: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1972), 175–179.
- 41.
Christina A. Sue, “The Dynamics of Color: Mestizaje, Racism, and Blackness in Veracruz, Mexico,” in Shades of Difference: Why Skin Color Matters, edited by Evelyn Nakano Glenn (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 2009).
- 42.
- 43.
Sue, The “Dynamics of Color”; Sue, Land of the Cosmic Race.
- 44.
Sue, Land of the Cosmic Race, 116.
- 45.
Ibid.
- 46.
Ibid, 141.
- 47.
Sue, Land of the Cosmic Race 6.
- 48.
Ibid, 21.
- 49.
Ibid, 3.
- 50.
Mónica G. Moreno Figueroa, “Naming Ourselves: Recognising Racism and Mestizaje in Mexico,” in Contesting Recognition: Culture, Identity and Citizenship, edited by Janice McLaughlin, Peter Phillimore, and Diane Richardson (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011).
- 51.
Mónica G. Moreno Figueroa, “‘Linda Morenita’: Skin Colour, Beauty and the Politics of Mestizaje in Mexico,” in Cultures of Colour: Visual, Material, Textual, edited by Chris Horrocks (Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2012), 173.
- 52.
“Pueblo alegre y bullanguero, proclive al convite, los veracruzanos traen la música por dentro.” “Cultura: Música Tradicional,” H. Ayuntamiento de la Ciudad y Puerto de Veracruz, accessed June 9, 2008, http://www.veracruz-puerto.gob.mx/cultura/musicatradicional.asp.
- 53.
Juan Antonio Flores Martos, Portales de Múcara: Una Etnografía del Puerto de Veracruz (Xalapa, Mexico: Universidad Veracruzana, 2004), 30.
- 54.
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, In Other Worlds: Essays in Cultural Politics (New York: Methuen, 1987).
- 55.
“La herencia Africana en México es como el azúcar en el café: no se ve, pero hace que todo sepa mejor.”
- 56.
“Las cubanas ya ves que bailan muy, muy erótico. Las cubanas son algo especial. Y entonces, cuando empezaron a sacar el danzón veracruzano, el jarocho es más lento para bailarlo, no es como el cubano: no, no, no! Al danzón empezaron [los músicos Veracruzanos] a darle un ritmo más asentado, más bonito, más decente por decirlo así, y ahí fue como se formó el danzón veracruzano.”
- 57.
“Hay tanto racismo; no queremos admitir lo que tenemos en nosotros. Aplastaron al negro y al indígena—nadie quiere ser negro o indígena. La gente dice: ‘Pobrecitos indios, gallegos orgullosos, negros huácala.” Huácala is a Mexican, onomatopoeic expression of disgust.
- 58.
Alan Knight, “Racism, Revolution, and Indigenismo: Mexico, 1910–1940,” in The Idea of Race in Latin America, 1870–1940, edited by Richard Graham (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990), 99.
- 59.
Peter Wade, “Racial Identity and Nationalism: A Theoretical View from Latin America,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 24, no. 5 (2001), 849.
- 60.
Aguirre Beltrán, La Población; Luz María Martínez Montiel, La Gota de Oro (Veracruz: IVEC, 1988).
- 61.
Bernardo García Díaz and Horacio Guadarrama Olivera, Breve Historia del Instituto Veracruzano de la Cultura. Tomo I: Los Primeros XV Años (Veracruz: Gobierno del Estado de Veracruz-Llave, Instiuto Veracruzano de la Cultura, 2004); Christian Rinaudo, “Más allá de la ‘Identidad Negra’: Mestizaje y Dinámicas Raciales en la Ciudad de Veracruz” in Mestizaje, Diferencia y Nación: “Negro” en América Central y el Caribe, edited by Elisabeth Cunin (Lo México D.F.: INAH, UNAM, CEMCA, IRD, 2010).
- 62.
For an analysis of the workings of mestizaje as a form of whiteness, see Mónica G. Moreno Figueroa, “Distributed Intensities: Whiteness, Mestizaje and the Logics of Mexican Racism,” Ethnicities 10, no. 3 (2010).
- 63.
Knight, “Racism, Revolution”; Ana María Alonso, “Conforming Disconformity: ‘Mestizaje,’ Hybridity, and the Aesthetics of Mexican Nationalism,” Cultural Anthropology 19, no. 4 (2004).
- 64.
The relationship of indigenous peoples to the Mexican nation over the twentieth century is explored by Carmen Martínez Novo, Who Defines Indigenous?: Identities, Development, Intellectuals, and the State in Northern Mexico (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2006) and Emiko Saldívar Tanaka. Prácticas Cotidianas del Estado: Una Etnografía del Indigenismo (México: Plaza y Valdés, 2008).
- 65.
The difficulties of recognizing racial identities in Mexico is interrogated by Moreno Figueroa, “Distributed Intensities.”
- 66.
For an analysis of shifts in understandings of race in Latin America in recent decades, see Peter Wade, “The Presence and Absence of Race,” Patterns of Prejudice 44, no. 1 (2010).
- 67.
Here, mestizaje is akin to whiteness in other contexts, as Moreno Figueroa has argued, “Distributed Intensities.”
- 68.
Moreno Figueroa, “Historically Rooted Transnationalism.”
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Malcomson, H. (2016). The Expediency of Blackness: Racial Logics and Danzón in the Port of Veracruz, Mexico. In: Rivera-Rideau, P., Jones, J., Paschel, T. (eds) Afro-Latin@s in Movement. Afro-Latin@ Diasporas. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-59874-5_2
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