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Between Friends and Enemies: The Dilemma of Jews in the Final Stages of the War

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Minorities and the First World War

Abstract

In the final stages of the war, the status of Jews as “friendly” minorities became heavily contested. While German Jews struggled with the aftershocks of the “Jew count” in the German army, British Jews faced debates about the military service of “friendly” alien Jews in their midst. The war’s catalyst effect on both nations increasingly blurred the boundaries between “friends” and “enemies”, but also between citizenship and ethnicity. Focusing on the subject of contested Jewish loyalties in times of national crisis, this chapter demonstrates the complexity of the Jewish situation between 1916 and 1919–1920. In so doing, it sheds new light on the contradictory legacies shaping the Jewish experiences of the First World War, thereby avoiding a one-dimensional narrative of Jewish “victory” or “defeat”.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    “In the Communal Armchair. Hit Back! Hit Back! Hit Back!,” Jewish Chronicle, October 11, 1918, 7.

  2. 2.

    Whereas the armistice of November 11, 1918 marked the official endpoint of the war, the violence that erupted in the course of it continued afterwards, creating many “new” fronts in times of peace, especially in Eastern Europe but also elsewhere. On the ambivalent outcomes of the war and its consequences in the immediate post-war period, see Jörn Leonhard, Die Büchse der Pandora: Geschichte des Ersten Weltkriegs (Munich: C.H. Beck, 2014), 939–978.

  3. 3.

    Ben Peter Gidley, “Citizenship and Belonging: East London Jewish Radicals, 1903–1918” (PhD diss., University of London, 2003), 194. On the recent interest in “aliens” and “enemies” at the home fronts during the war, see Daniela L. Caglioti ed., Aliens and Internal Enemies during the First World War (Munich: C.H. Beck, 2014).

  4. 4.

    For a more detailed analysis of Jewish war experiences in Europe and the United States, see Sarah Panter, Jüdische Erfahrungen und Loyalitätskonflikte im Ersten Weltkrieg (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2014).

  5. 5.

    Panikos Panayi, ed., Minorities in Wartime: National and Racial Groupings in Europe, North America and Australia during the Two World Wars (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993); Panikos Panayi, ed., Germans as Minorities during the First World War: A Global Comparative Perspective (Ashgate: Farnham, 2014). One early exception for the Jewish case is: David Cesarani, “An Embattled Minority: The Jews in Britain during the First World War,” Immigrants & Minorities 8:1–2 (1989).

  6. 6.

    David Rechter, The Jews of Vienna and the First World War (Oxford: Littman Library, 2001); Marsha Rozenblit, Reconstructing a National Identity: The Jews of Habsburg Austria during World War I (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001); Tim Grady, The German-Jewish Soldiers of the First World War in History and Memory (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2011); Derek Penslar, Jews and the Military: A History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013); Christopher M. Sterba, Good Americans. Italian and Jewish Immigrants during the First World War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003); Ulrich Sieg, Jüdische Intellektuelle im Ersten Weltkrieg: Kriegserfahrungen, weltanschauliche Debatten und kulturelle Neuentwürfe (Berlin: Akademie, 2001); and for the British case, in particular Anne Lloyd, “Jews under Fire: The Jewish Community and Military Service in World War I Britain” (PhD diss., University of Southampton, 2009).

  7. 7.

    On the eve of the war, Jews in Germany numbered 615,021, including 70,000 Eastern European Jews. In Britain, in contrast, Jews numbered only about 257,000, yet included a much larger proportion of Eastern European Jews, that is, mainly urbanised, working-class and Yiddish-speaking Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe. These numbers for Jews living in Britain are, however, a conservative estimate and others put them higher, at around 300,000. Between 1881 and 1914, about 120,000 to 150,000 foreign Jews, in particular from the Russian Empire, had made their new home in Britain. “Statistics of Jews, A. Jewish Population of the World,” American Jewish Year Book 19 (1917–1918): 409–410; Jack Wertheimer, “‘The Unwanted Element’: East European Jews in Imperial Germany,” Leo Baeck Institute Year Book 26 (1981): 32; Todd Endelman, The Jews of Britain, 1656 to 2000 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 127, 129.

  8. 8.

    Vejas Gabriel Liulevicius, War Land on the Eastern Front: Culture, National Identity, and German Occupation in World War I (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).

  9. 9.

    Willy Cohn, “Die Zukunftsfragen des deutschen Judentums, ” Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums, November 26, 1915, 566; Kurt Alexander, “Deutschland und die Ostjudenfrage. Eine Erwiderung, ” Im deutschen Reich, January 1916, 25.

  10. 10.

    Though remaining a numerical minority within the Jewish communities across Central and Western Europe, Zionists would experience in many respects a process of self-empowerment during the war. See Michael Berkowitz, Western Jewry and the Zionist Project, 1914–1933 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 7–25.

  11. 11.

    M.R., “Die Ostjudenfrage I,” Ost und West, February 1916, 79; Leo Herrmann, “Das Kredo der Assimilanten,” Jüdische Rundschau, January 14, 1916, 9–10.

  12. 12.

    Steven E. Aschheim, Brothers and Strangers: The East European Jew in German and German Jewish Consciousness, 1800–1923 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1982).

  13. 13.

    Panter, Erfahrungen, 180–185. There were, however, not only many Jewish conscripts but also many others, like the Jewish chaplain Aaron Tänzer, who served as war volunteers with the German army. In Britain, the sons of Anglo-Jewry, who like their German counterparts belonged mainly to the acculturated middle-class, had also volunteered eagerly before the introduction of conscription in 1916. See Endelman, Britain, 185.

  14. 14.

    Abschrift. Kriegsministerium. An das Kaiserliche Generalgouvernement Warschau, October 11, 1916, Bundesarchiv Freiburg, Nr. 247/8. 16 C 1 b, PH 30/II/19, 28.

  15. 15.

    Panter, Erfahrungen, 265

  16. 16.

    For a nuanced interpretation of the German-Jewish soldiers’ war experiences, avoiding the pitfalls of earlier scholarship, see Penslar, Military, 166–194; Grady, Soldiers.

  17. 17.

    Protokoll der Sitzung des geschäftsführenden Ausschusses, June 30, 1915, Archiv der Stiftung Neue Synagoge Berlin—Centrum Judaicum (CJB), 1, 75 C Ve 1, Nr. 398 (13020).

  18. 18.

    Rundschreiben des Verbands der deutschen Juden an alle jüdischen Zeitungen, February 4, 1917, CJB, 1, 75 C Ve 1, Nr. 226 (12849).

  19. 19.

    On the importance of “spy fever” and the fears associated with it in particular during the first weeks of the war, see: Catriona Pennell, A Kingdom United: Popular Responses to the Outbreak of the First World War in Britain and Ireland (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 102. For a more detailed analysis of the general situation of “Jews”, “Germans” and “aliens”—three notions that were used interchangeably during the war, see Susanne Terwey, Moderner Antisemitismus in Großbritannien, 1899–1919: Über die Funktion von Vorurteilen sowie Einwanderung und nationale Identität (Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann, 2006), 179; Panikos Panayi, The Enemy in Our Midst: Germans in Britain during the First World War (Oxford: Berg, 1991), 8.

  20. 20.

    Report of the Aliens Enlistment Committee, July 26, 1916, 3, The National Archives Kew (TNA), HO 45/10818/318095. During the war, approximately 41,500 Jews from Britain, most of whom were drafted after the passing of the Military Service Act in 1916 (including 8,000 Russian Jews, which meant “foreign” Jews, in 1917/18), would serve with the British Army. These figures are quoted from Anne Lloyd, “Between Integration and Separation: Jews and Military Service in World War I Britain,” Jewish Culture and History 12:1–2 (2010): 43.

  21. 21.

    On the difficulty of distinguishing between naturalised and non-naturalised Jews, see also Sascha Auerbach, “Negotiating Nationalism: Jewish Conscription and Russian Repatriation in London’s East End, 1916–1918,” Journal of British Studies 46:3 (2007).

  22. 22.

    The idea of a “conscription crisis” is usually associated with resistance to the Military Service Act in Ireland in 1918 but it is equally apt for characterising the cultural and political aspects of the Jewish situation. On the conscription crisis in Ireland, see Thomas Hennessey, Dividing Ireland. World War I and Partition (New York: Routledge, 1998), 214–221.

  23. 23.

    See Newspaper Clippings. “The Shamelessness of the Foreign Jew,” August 5, 1916; “The Future of the Foreign Jew,” August 12, 1916, TNA, HO 45/10818/318095.

  24. 24.

    For more details on this debate, see Panter, Erfahrungen, 223–227.

  25. 25.

    William D. Rubinstein, A History of the Jews in the English-Speaking World: Great Britain (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1996), 194.

  26. 26.

    On Wolf’s role as Jewry’s main “diplomat” during the war, see Mark Levene, War, Jews, and the New Europe. The Diplomacy of Lucien Wolf, 1914–1919 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992).

  27. 27.

    On the JWSC, see Anne Lloyd, “War, Conflict and the Nation: Between Integration and Separation: Jews and Military Service in World War I Britain,” in Whatever Happened to British Jewish Studies?, eds. Hannah Ewence and Tony Kushner (London: Vallentine Mitchell, 2012), 48–51.

  28. 28.

    Lucien Wolf to Lionel de Rothschild, June 2, 1916, London Metropolitan Archives—Board of Deputies of British Jews (LMA), ACC/3121/C/11/002/009/001. Wolf would later expand on his arguments publicly: “The Alien and the Army. Can We Conscript Foreigners?,” Daily Chronicle, September 6, 1916, TNA, HO 45/10819/318095.

  29. 29.

    Wolf to de Rothschild, 2.

  30. 30.

    “Deportation of Jews: Alarm of Jewish Population of East London,” TNA, HO 45/10818/318095; Enlistment or Deportation of Russians. “The Light of Asylum,” Manchester Guardian, ibid.

  31. 31.

    See Severin Adam Hochberg, “The Repatriation of Eastern European Jews from Great Britain, 1881–1914,” Jewish Social Studies 50 (1992).

  32. 32.

    On the impact of the Russian Revolution on Anglo Jewry, see Harold Shukman, War or Revolution: Russian Jews and Conscription in Britain, 1917 (London: Vallentine Mitchell, 2006); Sharman Kadish, Bolsheviks and British Jews: The Anglo-Jewish Community, Britain, and the Russian Revolution (London: Frank Cass, 1992).

  33. 33.

    “In the Communal Armchair. The Trouble at Leeds, and Other Places,” Jewish Chronicle, June 22, 1917, 8.

  34. 34.

    For different interpretations concerning the complex relationship between anti-alienism and anti-Semitism during the war, see Colin Holmes, Anti-Semitism in British Society, 1876–1939 (London: Arnold, 1979), 136; Tony Kushner, “Jew and non-Jew in the East End of London: Towards an Anthropology of ‘Everyday’ Relations,” in Outsiders & Outcasts. Essays in Honour of William J. Fishman, eds. Geoffrey Alderman and Colin Holmes (London: Duckworth, 1993), 42–44.

  35. 35.

    See, for example, the letters contained in the Chief Rabbi’s correspondence with chaplains and military personnel, LMA, ACC/2805/04/04/011.

  36. 36.

    Arthur Barnett, “The Bacon Tasted Good, 1919,” Jewish Chronicle, February 28, 1919, in A Documentary History of Jewish Immigrants in Britain, 1840–1920, ed. David Englander (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1994), 351.

  37. 37.

    On the differences, see, for example, Alexander Watson, “Voluntary Enlistment in the Great War: A European Phenomenon?” in War Volunteering in Modern Times: From the French Revolution to the Second World War, eds. Christine Krüger and Sonja Levsen (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011).

  38. 38.

    Bernhard Breslauer, “Neuorientierung,” Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums, April 20, 1917, 183.

  39. 39.

    Anne-Christin Saß, Berliner Luftmenschen. Osteuropäisch-jüdische Migranten in der Weimarer Republik (Göttingen: Wallstein, 2012); Michael Brenner, The Renaissance of Jewish Culture in Weimar Germany (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998).

  40. 40.

    Werner Jochmann, Gesellschaftskrise und Judenfeindschaft in Deutschland 1870–1945 (Hamburg: Christians, 1988), 118.

  41. 41.

    Else Dormitzer-Dorn, “Wir wollen sein ein einig Volk von Brüdern,” Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums, July 26, 1918, 349–350.

  42. 42.

    “Vom Kriegs-Antisemitismus,” Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums, November 22, 1918, 560–562.

  43. 43.

    Alexander Gallus, “Revolutions (Germany),” in 1914–1918 online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, accessed August 11, 2015, http://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/revolutions_germany/2014-10-08.

  44. 44.

    M.R., “Die Revolution,” Neue jüdische Monatshefte: Zeitschrift für Politik, Wirtschaft und Literatur in Ost und West, November 10, 1918, 49.

  45. 45.

    On the stab-in-the-back myth in Germany, see Boris Barth, “Dolchstoßlegende und Novemberrevolution,” in Die vergessene Revolution von 1918/19, ed. Alexander Gallus (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht 2010).

  46. 46.

    Cornelia Hecht, Deutsche Juden und Antisemitismus in der Weimarer Republik (Bonn: Dietz, 2003), 72–97; Paul Mendes-Flohr, “Im Schatten des Weltkrieges,” in Deutsch-jüdische Geschichte in der Neuzeit, Vol. IV: Aufbruch und Zerstörung, 1918–1945, eds. Avraham Barkai and Paul Mendes-Flohr (Munich: C.H. Beck, 1997), 28–36; Peter Pulzer, “Between Hope and Fear. Jews and the Weimar Republic,” in Jüdisches Leben in der Weimarer Republik = Jews in the Weimar Republic, eds. Wolfgang Benz, Arnold Paucker and Paul Mendes-Flohr (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1998), 271–279.

  47. 47.

    See Endelman, Britain, 200–202; David Cesarani, “An Alien Concept? The Continuity of Anti-Alienism in British Society Before 1940,” in The Internment of Aliens in Twentieth-Century Britain, eds. Tony Kushner and David Cesarani (London: Routledge, 1993), 37–38; Susan Kingsley Kent, Aftershocks: Politics and Trauma in Britain, 1918–1931 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009).

  48. 48.

    “League of British Jews,” Jewish Opinion, April 1919, 1; “In the Communal Armchair. The Means for ‘Hitting Back’,” Jewish Chronicle, October 18, 1918, 7.

  49. 49.

    “In the Communal Armchair. Peace: Some Thoughts,” Jewish Chronicle, November 1, 1918, 7; “To the King,” Jewish World, November 13, 1918, 5.

  50. 50.

    See, for example, Michael Adler, British Jewry Book of Honour, 1914–1918 (London: Caxton, 1922).

  51. 51.

    On the debate about Jewish minority rights in Eastern Europe and the role of Anglo American Jewry, see Carole Fink, Defending the Rights of Others: The Great Powers, the Jews, and International Minority Protection, 1878–1938 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004); and more recently, Liliana Riga and James Kennedy, “Tolerant Majorities, Loyal Minorities and ‘Ethnic Reversals’,” Nations and Nationalism 15 (2009).

  52. 52.

    Mark Mazower, “Minorities and the League of Nations in Interwar Europe,” Daedalus 126 (1997): 52.

  53. 53.

    See David Cesarani et al., “England, Liberalism and the Jews: An Anglo-Jewish Historikerstreit,” Jewish Quarterly 44 (1997); Till van Rahden, “‘In Defence of Differences’: A Comment on Tony Kushner,” in Two Nations. British and German Jews in Comparative Perspective, eds. Michael Brenner, Rainer Liedtke and David Rechter (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1999), 111–115.

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    Sarah Panter

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    Hannah Ewence

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    Tim Grady

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Panter, S. (2017). Between Friends and Enemies: The Dilemma of Jews in the Final Stages of the War. In: Ewence, H., Grady, T. (eds) Minorities and the First World War. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-53975-5_3

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