Introduction

In the twenty-first century, leadership is subjected to global processes, including the international political environment, the development of innovative technologies, globalisation, etc.1. These processes have significantly influenced the understanding of how to develop well-structured organisational models in modern society. The procedures significantly influence how leadership is perceived, thereby heightening its significance in attaining individual success. The research admits that the focus on communication has changed to less individualistic. Modern society experiences a high level of digitalisation, which cannot but affect the worldview and the development of character traits2.

Leadership concepts and culture are the most popular topics in the scientific literature on management and education. As part of leadership, gender stereotypes play a significant role, but they do not include gender expectations, based on implicit beliefs. However, early works by European scientists discussed that these concepts were considered by researchers separately in the context of leadership3. The analysis of the key concepts may have caused an incomplete understanding of leadership, paying no attention to important questions such as the role of leadership in modern society and its effectiveness for the educational system4.

Recently, insufficient information was collected on how national culture influenced leadership styles. Therefore, additional research is needed to evaluate the relationship and role of gender and leadership in the national context. The experimental data should be collected on the global leadership processes and their role in distance education faced by society in the past 5 years.

On the global scale, open online learning and distance learning requires innovation and updated strategies at all levels due to paradigm shifts and global trends towards increasing digitalisation in all sectors of society5. Education should focus on new trends in executive leadership, paradigm shifts, and innovative approaches to popularise leadership and management practices6.

Globally, humankind must reconsider leadership as part of open, online and distance learning, making it an innovative, redefined and re-evaluated process. The main topics discussed by modern researchers are the new vision of digitalisation, the solutions to emerging social problems, global open, online, and distance learning, and leadership of open online learning available to students on a global scale7.

Modern leaders are the individuals who embrace and promote teaching, research, governance and society to move towards in-person global open online learning. The present research focuses on the issue of leadership behaviour because a leader’s style or behaviour theory is one of the main theories of leadership used in cross-cultural research. Future research is needed to evaluate the differences in leadership processes between male and female leaders. It should be considered in terms of What leaders do and how they act8.

The proposed experiment is additional cross-cultural research that focuses on issues of gender, social status and leadership. The research goal is to discuss these concepts and fill a gap in the scientific literature on gender studies from the cross-cultural perspective and distance education. The research is the synthesis and the generalised conceptual model that supports gender, educational, and cultural studies.

Conducting research on evaluating leadership development in distance education with a focus on gender, psychology, and cultural dimensions is quite important because understanding gender dynamics in leadership development can help address and mitigate gender biases and disparities. Research would help identify specific needs and best practices, ensuring that leadership development programs are culturally sensitive and relevant. Leadership development is deeply intertwined with psychological constructs such as motivation, self-efficacy, emotional intelligence, and resilience. Investigating these aspects can enhance the effectiveness of leadership training by tailoring approaches to individual psychological profiles.

Literature review

Distance learning as a communicative educational tool

Globally, distance education has entered many spheres of life influenced by open universities and the latest computer technologies. In modern Europe, many educational institutions offer distance learning programmes, including well-known universities such as Dublin City University, EU Business School, and the University of Turin9. Similar universities are present in North and South America, along with Asia. An interest in technology education programmes, including satellite communications services and networking, has increased significantly over the past decades.

Previously unpopular, distance learning has been introduced to many industries and has become a major initiative for both for-profit and non-profit colleges and universities. Different factors increased the demand for distance education, including the need to occupy a niche in the market, competition between higher education institutions, increasing popularity, the development of new trends in digital technologies, and changing priorities in higher education10. All these factors supported the introduction and implementation of distance education programmes in higher education.

Distance learning is a promising new technology designed to involve students in independent learning11. The system is based on electronic communication technology that supports interaction between students and teachers from different locations (geographic places), time zones, or both factors12.

At the beginning of the last century, a group of American scholars researched the influence of command forces on human behaviour patterns and paid special attention to the concept of leadership. The research claims that the group can control the leader’s behaviour, managing the dominant style using time constraints13.

In distance education, the leader is a mentor who manages students’ behaviour at the administrative level14. In some cases, a team of leaders is formed to find the best ways and methods of training (including distance learning). Leadership is a decision-making process. Thus, management is a process of making optimal decisions, even if these decisions may not satisfy the interests of the majority of participants involved in the learning process15. A good leader encourages his colleagues to take on challenges at work being limited by different factors, helps employees progress unlocks their inner strength, and makes them feel comfortable about getting the job done. The students’ interest in selflessness, a sense of responsibility and pride in their team is crucial for effective team management.

Concepts of management and leadership in education

Management and leadership operate at different levels. Management helps scholars identify qualitative decisions and solve problems. Leadership stipulates what should be done for this. Leadership psychology views this process from the perspective of individual experience, focusing on factors such as gender, ability, potential, and social aspects16.

The Asian scholars analysed in detail the relations and co-dependence of gender and leadership qualities. Many scholars suppose that no direct relationships exist between the two concepts17. They pay special attention to the psychological theories of leadership. Researchers usually define leadership according to the goals of their research. Thus, many definitions of leadership exist and serve the needs of different research subjects. Leadership is a process in which an individual interacts with others to achieve goals18.

This research investigates the best environment for distance learning from the leadership theory perspective. Psychologists identified different styles of leadership. The theory of charismatic leadership defines a leader as an individual with unique personality traits. The leaders develop absolute trust in the group based on charisma and encourage others to follow19. Situational leadership suggests that leadership styles change in different circumstances. This theory successfully functions in the context of social and cultural factors that influenced the development of the team of students from different countries (when communication is based on different styles). The situational leader may demonstrate leadership qualities in one situation but omit them in another18. Situational leadership is flexible and allows a leader to use leadership qualities in turbulent times (i.e., educational, commercial, political, cultural, and gender spheres).

Relational leadership suggests that an individual focuses on unity and develops connections between group members20. This theory encompasses the configuration of the leader’s personality traits, duration of team engagement, and social-cultural dimensions. At the same time, leadership implies joint performance when each group member brings something new to the collective decision. Goals and objectives, rather than gender and cultural factors, are the key drivers of leadership. National researchers support this leadership theory.

Distance learning eliminates the need for teachers’ physical presence in the classroom. The development of a lesson, learning period, task completion, and assessment are separated in time. The scholars consider that the student is more focused and motivated as he learns the lesson in a convenient place and time19. The new approaches to learning allow teachers to track the progress through electronic systems that can be accessed from any electronic device21. Learning online, the student does not miss lessons but uses the free time more rationally to learn the main programme and concentrate on scientific areas of interest. The need to visit an educational institution each day limits the independence of students and prevents individuals from choosing free time (for example, the need to do homework). The student has limited opportunities to select a social environment and a way to interact with the outside world17. The physical distance between teachers and students reduces internal tension and communication barriers. Communication skills can be improved by both educators and students, including fewer stereotypes, social clichés and compliance.

The communication models described above allow students to recognise the stimuli and the new behaviour patterns but, at the same time, generate stereotypes. The experiment should focus on the attribution and distribution of social roles to overcome the contradictions between expectations based on stereotypes and the behaviour of individuals in a team20.

In distance learning, teamwork has acquired new features. For its successful functioning, a group needs a leader who can unite different types of individuals but overcome subjective factors of influence such as space, time and cultural differences. The experiment evaluated the role of the leader in this process and destroyed the social stereotypes that existed in society. The research purpose is to investigate the effectiveness of leadership in distance learning influenced by psychological theories of leadership, gender characteristics and cross-cultural factors. The following key tasks should be implemented within the framework of the experiment to achieve the research goal:

  • evaluate the influence of leadership qualities on teamwork;

  • evaluate the impact of leadership on distance learning;

  • determine the differences in the perception of leadership by males and females;

  • identify how cross-cultural factors influence leadership in distance learning.

Materials and methods

Research design

The research aims to achieve the research goal, which is the development of leadership in distance learning. The proposed models and characteristics associated with management and leadership were identified. The scholars evaluated the distance learning environment to determine the presence or absence of possible problems and limitations. Using the formula Proof by Contradiction the research proved the possibility of developing leadership in distance learning22.

This research uses mixed methods of the research such as surveys, testing, quantitative and qualitative analysis, and statistical data processing. The wide and in-depth qualitative analysis of interview answers (the examples are given in the “Results” section)23 allows us to understand the general nature of the research. The methods of subjective (the experience of the respondents) and objective (machine calculation of clusters) assessment allowed the scholars to apply more arguments to leadership in the learning process.

Induction methods helped the scholars identify the specifics of the direct implementation of distance learning. The synthesis is used to determine how distance learning approaches affect an educational institution in a society.

Sample

The sample involved 600 female and male students aged 18–20 years from Abu Dhabi University, American University in The Emirates, and the United Arab Emirates University. These universities were chosen for the experiment because they educated foreign students (4/5 of the total number of students). In such a way it became possible to investigate cultural concepts in the field of leadership education. The presence of both male and female students minimized the aspect of gender inequality and provided the possibility of gender leadership investigation.

This form of education requires distance learning to provide all students with the required learning materials. As part of this process, students should periodically interact and complete team projects to demonstrate leadership qualities. Communication involves interaction based on different genders as well as cross-cultural aspects. A focus group of 600 students included 50% males and 50% females tested to collect more accurate data during the research (Table 1).

Table 1 Distribution of gender and age of respondents (developed by the author).
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This section may be divided by subheadings. It should provide a concise and precise description of the experimental results, their interpretation, and the experimental conclusions that can be drawn.

Survey

The questionnaire on leadership stereotypes helped the scholars collect the data and determine the main leadership models in distance learning. The processing data are distributed according to t-correlation, which validates the processing data reliability. The questionnaire on leadership stereotypes includes two blocks of questions processed using the STATISTICS cluster analysis programme. Block 1 includes questions about leadership stereotypes, the role of a leader in a group, and the perception of leadership by females and males. Block 2 includes questions about social and cultural factors that influence interpersonal perceptions.

Research limitations

The main research limitation is that it collects data from one educational institution. The effectiveness of the experiment can be increased by using several private universities, proposing the distance learning format. If these universities are located in different countries (isolated geographical areas), the effectiveness of the survey will increase several times.

Ethical issues

All research participants followed the main principles of the Declaration of Helsinki and acted with the permission of the educational institution. The students were informed about the research objectives and signed personal consent to participate in the research. The ethical issues cover how to collect and disseminate personal data. This research does not involve animal studies.

Ethics approval

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Institutional Review Board of United Arab Emirates University (protocol No. 003 of 12.08.2023).

Informed consent statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Results

The experiment claimed that participants working in groups of up to 20 students comfortably attended an online lesson: the teacher sees each of them, and the students can also see each other. Thus, socialisation is not excluded but supported in student chats.

In an online lesson, students work directly with each other on some tasks. This practice allows the student to test different communication strategies and ensure the same rapport with peers. The student develops leadership qualities through communication with new partners.

Figure 1
figure 1

The Distribution of key factors influencing the perception of a leader (developed by the author).

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A student survey confirms that the leader exhibits identification factors. Most students pay special attention to how other students perceive them, which is consistent with the theory of charismatic leadership. The key factors influencing how exactly a group member perceives someone as a leader are the following: behaviour (50%), open-mindedness and intelligence (35%), appearance (i.e. physical attractiveness, personal style, etc.) (15%) (Fig. 1).

Respondent 1: I think there are several key features that are essential for a good leader. First and foremost, a leader should have strong communication skills. This means not only being able to clearly articulate their vision and expectations but also being a good listener. It’s important that a leader listens to their team and considers their feedback.

Respondent 4: Another important feature is open-mindedness. A leader should be open to new ideas and different perspectives. This means being willing to consider alternative approaches and being adaptable when circumstances change. Open-mindedness also involves recognizing and valuing the diverse backgrounds and experiences of team members.

Respondent 38: In terms of behaviour, I think a leader should demonstrate integrity and honesty. They need to lead by example and act ethically in all situations. Trust is built when leaders are consistent in their actions and transparent in their decision-making.

The respondents admit that a leader possesses different qualities (Fig. 2) that form the image of an ideal leader. In many ways, this image may have changed and transformed from the native culture and educational environment that these respondents share. The table illustrates the differences in most leadership qualities but not significant. The research states that a female leader should have more intelligence (26%) and self-confidence (20%) as well as better communication skills (24%) to gain favour as a group leader than males. Male leaders need more rigidity (5%) and punctuality (15%). The rest of the indicators showed no significant difference.

Respondent 21: I think intelligence is crucial for female leaders. They often have to prove their capabilities more than their male counterparts. For example, in my last team, our female leader was incredibly knowledgeable and always on top of things. This really helped her earn our respect and trust.

Respondent 12: For male leaders, punctuality stands out. In my team, our male leader’s punctuality set a standard for the rest of us. It showed he was serious about our work and respected our time.

Figure 2
figure 2

The Distribution of the leadership qualities depending on gender (developed by the author).

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After cluster analysis of the questionnaires, the following groups are formed for the Indicator Leaders:

  1. 1.

    Absolute leaders or individuals who achieve and maintain the status of both formal and informal leaders (35% of cases).

  2. 2.

    Instrumental leaders or accepted as leaders only for their goal-oriented behaviour (20%).

  3. 3.

    Expressive leaders or individuals selected as leaders for their ability to develop emotional strength (45%) (Fig. 3).

Figure 3
figure 3

The Classification of Leadership in distance learning (developed by the author).

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The research revealed well-developed leadership acquisition models relevant to distance learning. The test of twenty statements, according to the recommendations of Locatelli, was adapted to the research task and contained an understanding of the question: What am I, if I am a leader? The proposed statement helped more accurately determine the leader’s characteristics perceived by the respondents.

The leaders’ indicators were reflected in the statements about the personal qualities of a leader and related role models:

  1. 1.

    Leadership role or socio-demographic characteristics (10%).

  2. 2.

    Personal leadership qualities (clever, kind, etc.) (35%).

  3. 3.

    Appearance (appearance and style of clothing) (15%).

  4. 4.

    Behavioural and communication characteristics (50%).

The testing revealed a high homogeneity of responses among respondents (with a standard sampling error of 2.2%). The majority of respondents (80.5%) possessed a high level of personal qualities. These characteristics are supported by communicative behaviour patterns as well as appearance and leadership role characteristics. Regardless of gender, the key personal qualities are responsibility, kindness, intelligence, honesty, strong character, and willpower.

The research underlines that these characteristics influence the image of a leader in the survey. This signifies that the subjective assessment by respondents, based solely on personal experience, aligns with the machine-generated calculation of potential leadership models. This can serve as evidence of both a well-developed research process and a homogeneous sample as well as the fact that the questionnaire did not go beyond the cultural template, thereby creating a cross-section of Eastern culture.

The research illustrates that disability, serious illness, or unremarkable appearance cannot prevent a student from gaining leadership qualities. Therefore, distance learning provides conditions for inspiring leadership and directly increases the opportunities for winning it in small and large groups since such a learning format reduces the pressure of society on the formation of a personality. Students of distance learning programmes develop leadership qualities and use them in everyday life. Moreover, students increase their social status and improve their motivation for learning (learning always means a person’s desire for self-improvement).

Discussion

Distance learning stimulates leadership and works for students, teachers, methodologists and educational institutions24. The proposed approach is found in cultural and social aspects, including the low cost of education for both students and teachers (since there is no need to rent a room, spend money on the travel to the place of education, etc.) and reduced time on the road. Moreover, the approach suggests the independent planning of time, place and lessons as well as training for a large number of individuals at the same time. The research supposes that the new model will help educators improve the quality of education, using modern tools and electronic libraries, and a unified educational environment (important for corporate training)21.

In contrast to the standardised approach, the average approach of schooling applied to distance learning in higher education caused a significant advantage. Distance learning uses interactive and hybrid or blended courses that offer flexible learning for students of all ages, including individual and team learning25. Both learning perspectives can be adapted to the needs and expectations of a specific group. This approach is a framework for successful leadership development and understanding social relations regardless of gender and country26. The research claims that gender is not the main issue in becoming a leader in a learning group. The attention is paid not to appearance (15%) but to the behavioural factor (50%) and mental abilities (35%) of a leader.

In different circumstances, males and females demonstrate leadership qualities in different ways, depending on how they acquired these qualities (whether they were nurtured, learnt or life experiences)27. Some Asian scholars describe the style of female leaders as democratic and flexible. The research underlines that empathy, sociability, adaptability, and less aggression are traits that are rarely found in females28. German scientists emphasize that male leaders dominate large groups, are less open and expansive and prefer old-fashioned communication patterns with staff29. American scientists do not distinguish between male and female leaders, evaluating common characteristics such as competence, pomposity, efficiency, and creativity30. In their opinion, these leaders possess high self-esteem, a clear sense of personal goals, self-awareness, coolness, and independence. The research claims that to be successful, a female leader must demonstrate more intelligence (26% and 20%, respectively) and more confidence (20% and 15%, respectively) than male leaders.

The research on gender in leadership covers six issues related to the relationship between leadership and gender, namely the number of males and females in leadership positions; behaviour patterns; leadership effectiveness; gender distribution in the group; desire for leadership; and gender identity of the leaders31. At the same time, the main issue is that the effectiveness of education should not be questioned if the research relies heavily on the stereotypes of gender co-dependence.

The cultural characteristics of the leader’s country of origin influence the national organisation and depend on the ability of the leader to manage organisations in terms of informal and formal communication, introduce a unified communication system, and access reliable and complete sources of information27. The research confirms that socio-demographic characteristics are not in the first place (10%) in the survey. Competences to address this issue are effectively formed through distance education, which explains the need for educational institutions32.

The findings from research on evaluating leadership development in distance education, considering gender, psychology, and cultural dimensions can lead to the creation of leadership development programs that are customised to meet the specific needs of different genders, cultural backgrounds, and psychological profiles. Different educational programs can be designed to be more inclusive, addressing gender biases and ensuring equitable participation and engagement for all learners. Policymakers can use research findings to develop regulations and standards that ensure leadership development programs are inclusive, effective, and culturally sensitive. Educational institutions can leverage findings to strategically plan and implement leadership development initiatives that are aligned with the diverse needs of their student population.

Conclusion

The research evaluates the problem that a student becomes a leader if he develops strong personal qualities and has similar features to the image of a leader formed in the views of the social group. However, leadership behaviour is formed before the inclusion of an individual to the team. Distance learning can be seen as an effective means of the leaders’ development. Leadership has become a significant feature of the modern world. An individual strives for and can achieve social success as well as change the educational world, closely connected with information technologies, allowing many students to access information and acquire new skills, regardless of their geographical location. Distance learning is becoming an effective way to achieve leadership without the influence of social stereotypes, clichés, gender inequality and other social and cultural barriers.

The research underlines that the majority of students, regardless of gender, suppose that both sexes can be leaders (80%). Factors influencing how one or another group member perceives the leader of the organisational structure (formal or informal) of the social group depend on the emotional dimension of intra-group relations. The collected data demonstrates the absence of limitations in stereotypical perceptions of leadership. At the same time, the research finds that to achieve success, a female leader has to show more intelligence (26% and 20%, respectively) and more confidence (20% and 15%, respectively) than male leaders. Cultural and socio-demographic characteristics do not play a key role in the development of a leader (10%). The key issues for this selection are behavioural and communication characteristics (50%) as well as leadership and personal qualities (35%).

These results can be used by educators to develop online distance learning courses in universities (both group and individual) as well as by psychologists who evaluate the personal qualities of individuals and the social environment to develop leadership skills. Educators are encouraged to cultivate and integrate curriculum content that encompasses a wide array of cultural perspectives and leadership practices, incorporating case studies, examples, and readings drawn from diverse cultural contexts. The results of this research would help to use a mix of teaching methods such as discussions, role-plays, and simulations that cater to different learning styles and cultural backgrounds. Further research is needed to assess the difference in the perception of leadership in learning in Asian and Western European countries from a cross-cultural perspective.