1 Introduction

COVID-19, an infectious disease caused by SARS-CoV-2 has created havoc around the world since 2019. The outbreak that began in Wuhan, China, in November 2019, profoundly disrupted human well-being by severely affecting the food supplies, nutritional security and largely affecting the livelihood of millions of farmers and those who spend on allied sectors. COVID-19 was declared global Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) by World Health Organization (WHO) in February, 2020 that required immediate and sustained actions at all levels by all the nations [1]. Although addressing the devastating human and economic impacts on the global scale was a deeper concern emerged. These crises disproportionately vulnerable particularly certain groups, including older people, impoverished households, malnourished individuals, and those in remote rural communities with limited access to medical care and essential supplies. The second and third wave of the pandemic have gripped the nations worldwide and showed the severity of the pandemic that is going to stay here little longer than expected.

It has become increasingly clear that human health and human relationship with nature are inescapably intertwined. This holds across many dimensions of health, including the potential for the transmission of disease which was true for the COVID-19 pandemic [2]. Indigenous People Local Communities (IPLCs) living across the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) are known for their unique and valuable role in sustainably managing the significant share of local biodiversity and safeguarding nature as a fundamental aspect of their cultures and traditions. IPLCs can provide better insights for revisiting and re-balancing our relationship with nature to reduce future pandemic risks. IPLCs have been using their indigenous and traditional knowledge systems (ITKS) and efforts to provide solutions to many health challenges of a pandemic that especially include moderating COVID-19 infections and reducing post COVID impacts. IPLCs using their age-old traditional efforts continue to adapt to change using nutritional support from their traditional food systems [3].

The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic highlighted a strong debate for improving and strengthening immune defence by ensuring the appropriate use of traditional foods approved by traditional health care systems [4]. In the Central Himalayas a holistic approach of using traditional food systems to strengthen immune system against various human diseases, has already been established by many researchers [5, 6]. Present study was carried out after getting motivated by a series of webinars organized by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), G. B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment (GBPNIHE), HNBGU (Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal University), MRI (Mountain Research Initiative) and various other international and national academic and R&D institutions between June 2020 to February 2021 on plants-based health food and natural medicine for immunity buildup against COVID-19. We discuss the role and contribution of the traditional agro-and wild bio-resource-based food systems, which are not only known to be nutritionally rich, and having medicinal health benefits but is also helpful in developing robust immune system [7]. Study endorses ITK from IPLCs about traditional food and health care systems to provide integrated solutions that helps to improve immunity and reduce larger impact of the disease. Study stresses the evidence of renewed calls to (1) re-visit and reinvent potential bio-resources available in the region such as traditional crops varieties, wild fruits, medicinal plants, herbal spices and beverages (hot tea) of wild origin rich in nutrients, active secondary metabolites, nutraceutical and medicinal properties along with dietary nutrients (2) improving immunity to reduce mortality rates and (3) providing livelihood diversification to pandemic affected local communities in the Himalayas. The study brings insights the potential benifits of traditional food system rooted in mountain culture for nutrition and health care. This integrated approach could strengthen protective mechanisms for populations lacking adequate access to organized market supplies and medical services, particularly those residing in remote and inaccessible areas. Furthermore, it has the potential to benefit numerous individuals in urban areas nationwide, beyond those directly affected by health emergencies.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Study area

The IHR is spread across a 2800 km long and 220–300 km wide, mountain chain covering the states of Uttarakhand, Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya, Assam (two districts) and one district of West Bengal (8). The Central Himalayan region of Uttarakhand state is situated between 290 26′ 31ʺ 28 N and 770 49′ 80ʺ 06 E, and covers an area of 53,483 km2 (Fig. 1). The present study was carried out in four districts of the Garhwal region of Central Himalayas viz. Chamoli, Rudraprayag, Pauri and Tehri, which falls in nine remote valleys viz. Niti, Urgam, Pindar, Berahi, Binsar, Mandal, Nandakini, Upper Kedar, and Bhilangana, in Alaknanda (a tributary of river Ganga) catchment. A total of forty-five villages, five villages from each valley were covered under this study. The regions mainly occupy the forested areas and the total population of 45 villages was 8650 within 1331 households and had an average of 6.5 people/family. The rural settlements are located at an altitudinal gradient from 560 to 2800 m a msl. The topography of the region consists of steep mountains with high slopes, which have diverse climate-based zones ranging from sub-tropical to temperate and alpine. The average annual rainfall varied between 85 and 200 cm, and heavy rainfall occurs during June–September. Annual average temperatures ranged from 0.7 ℃ to 32.6 ℃ [9]. Alaknanda catchment is inhabited by diverse IPLCs and includes indigenous (Bhotiya, Van Gujars) and local (Brahmins, Rajput’s and Schedule castes) communities. The selection of Uttarakhand for documenting healthcare practices and indigenous knowledge to boost immunity during the COVID-19 pandemic is likely due to its rich tradition of indigenous healthcare practices and its unique position in the Himalayas. This region holds a deep knowledge of medicinal plants and herbs passed down through generations, making it a prime location to document immunity-boosting practices. Additionally, the mountainous environment necessitates a strong reliance on local resources for health, potentially leading to a robust system of traditional knowledge well-suited for research during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Fig. 1 
figure 1

: Map of study area

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2.2 Methodology

A comprehensive study was conducted to identify Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities (IPLCs) who use plant-based traditional food sources from agriculture and the wild, as well as traditional healthcare systems. An extensive survey was carried out during the peak of the pandemic from April 2020 to January 2022 in India. The rapid-response preliminary inquiry [10] and participant observations was documented, by questioning 195 interviews and interactive discussions (using online sources mobile phone, emails, social media, WhatsApp and community radio) using convenience sampling methods (using social contacts, including those living in rural landscape). The study involved rural participants, specifically local Vaidyas who practice plant-based traditional healthcare systems in the area, as well as elderly individuals with knowledge of plants for various purposes. They were asked to describe the plants of agro and wild origin that they consumed during COVID-19 for purposes such as food, medicine, spices, and beverages. This consumption was aimed at preventing infection, maintaining health, and boosting immune defenses. The nutritional significance of the documented plant species was supported by citing their nutritive value from published literature. Identification of plants and the available scientific information was based on the authors’ deep understanding, and expertise in this field that was further verified by the local name of the plant described by respondents.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 IPLCs, Indigenous and local knowledge (ILK) supported traditional food systems

A large section of the local inhabitants in the study area depends on agriculture-based activities for their livelihood. Region is a reservoir for a large number of traditional crop species like grains, millets, pseudo-cereals, pulses, tubers and oil seeds etc. [11]. Local people believe that most of the plants and their products are immune boosters and were considered useful in treating COVID-19 related ailments. During the pandemic, local Vaidays and elderly people have played important role in creating awareness among the masses by popularizing traditional remedies of bronchitis, colds and cough, pulmonary problems, nausea, fever, pneumonias also identified as major symptoms of the COVID-19.

The rural landscape across an elevational gradient covered under this study highlights a rich overview of how IPLCs are actively managing their health and are coping with COVID-19 crisis, using rich ITK that is also reflected in the lower number of COVID patients reported from the study area against the backdrop of high transmission and infection rates across other states [12].

The nutritional value of the selected traditional mountain crops revealed Perilla frutescens (locally called Bhangjeera) posses maximum protein content followed by pulses like Vigna radiata and Macrotyloma uniflorum and pseudocereals such as Amaranthus caudatus whereas least values found in millets like Echinochloa frumentacea and Eleusine coracana. The crops like Eleusine coracana and Fagopyrum esculentum are rich source of Carbohydrates, Perilla & Setaria are rich in fat contents, whereas crops such as Amaranthus caudatus, Fagopyrum esculentum, and Echinochloa frumentacea showed the highest fibre content (Table 1). Owing to their high nutritional value they are an important component of traditional therapeutic system and contribute significantly in healing and curing various diseases [13, 14]. This has resulted in reshaping their food habits using traditional crops during COVID for improving immune system.

Table 1 Traditional mountain crops used as major food by the local people during COVID-19 (as prescribed by local Vaidya’s/herbalists) to increase immune defenses in Central Himalaya, Uttarakhand
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3.2 Utilization of Himalayan wild plants for natural medicine and food

Based on the available information gathered from survey and previous scientific studies, it is important to understand that wild fruits/flowers and their edible value-added products have numerous medicinal properties and are used to treat various diseases in traditional health care system [9]. It is évident that among the wild fruits Elaeagnus latifolia has highest protein, carbohydrates, fats and fibre content whereas Aegle marmelos have very low content and thus non-timber forest products have served as an indispensable constituent of human diet (Table 2) [15,16,17]. Rural households reported regular consumption of over hundreds of different plants as medicine [6, 18] and have ten (10) specific plants as identified by the local Vaidhya’s that were consumed for ages to cure cold, cough, fever, asthma, breathing issues, improving immune system, pulmonary problems and blood purification [19]. The availability of the majority of medicinal plants was found higher during monsoon season followed by winter and summer season. However, species such as Viburnum, Hippophae and Phyllanthus were found available during the summer season. Among the species, the Rhododendron, Tinospora, Mentha, Allium and Zingiber were consumed in large quantities in all the seasons with maximum value was reported during the summer season followed by the winter season (Table 3) [20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29]. However, with time, the knowledge and understanding of such a diversified medicine and food base has weakened considerably. This decline in the knowledge base has a wide range of implications given the resurgence of global interest in natural food and medicines. Considering this, it is high time to rejuvenate people’s interest in harnessing the potential of these resources to counteract the impact of COVID-19 and other diseases in the future.

Table 2 Wild fruits/edibles consumed /used by the local people to increase immune defenses during COVID-19 (as prescribed by local Vaidya’s/herbalists) in Central Himalaya,Uttarakhand
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Table 3 Medicinal plants consumed/used by the local people to increase immune defenses during COVID-19 (as prescribed by local Vaidya’s/herbalists) in Central Himalaya, Uttarakhand
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3.3 Himalayan wild spices

Use of common spices such as red chilies, turmeric, black pepper is widespread in the region, but there are several local spices harvested from wild as well as cultivated areas in higher altitude areas of the Central Himalaya. Use of such spices has increased in recent times in local households during social and religious functions. Spices derived from plant species like Allium stracheyi, Allium humile, Allium rubellium, Angelica glauca, Carum carvi, Cinnamomum tamala and Pleurospermum angelicoides may be lesser known to mainstream societies but these are well known among locals who relish the flavor of these wild spices and are aware of associated healing properties. The nutritional composition of spice and condiments indicates that Allium rubellum has the highest carbohydrate (93.1 mg/g), protein (167.31 mg/g), lipids (96.112 mg/g), vitamin C (153.43 mg/g), and vitamin E (52.19 mg/g) content whereas Pleurospermum angelicoides, has the lowest carbohydrate (18.36 mg/g), protein (102.69 mg/g), Lipids (18.39 mg/g), vitamin C (65.47 mg/g), vitamin B2 (23.6 mcg/g), and vitamin E (12.45 mg/g) content (Table 4). The species such as Angelica glauca has the highest vitamin B2 concentration (33.74 mcg/g) [30]. One of the Vaidhyas informed a common practice where local people inhabiting high altitude villages use “seeds of Carum carvi (approx. 20 gm) milled with rock salt (5 gm) and 10 gm roots of Saussurea costus to cure cold, cough, fever and keep body energetic.” Regular use of the wild spices was endorsed by all respondents to be natural healthy approach to counteract the respiratory symptoms of flu and preventing cold, cough, and pneumonia. The consumption of all these spices was reported to have increased and have enhanced their market availability in local small markets and towns during COVID-19.

Table 4 Spices/condiments of wild origin consumed /used by the local people to increase immune defenses during COVID-19 (as prescribed by local Vaidya’s/herbalists) in Central Himalaya,Uttarakhand
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3.4 Himalayan wild leafy edibles

Six wild leafy greens consumed largely by local communities to improve immunity. Among the species, Amaranthus blitum showed higher protein and carbohydrate content followed by Rumex nepalensis and Diplazium esculentum. However, the maximum fat and fibre content possess by Rumex nepalensis followed by Amaranthus blitum whereas minimum values represented by Paeonia emodi (Table 5) [31,32,33,34,35,36,37]. The period of collection for leafy greens started in April and continued till the end of October month. Paeonia emodi was processed by locals for storage for consumption during lean periods of winters when fresh vegetable availability was less in nearby forests.

Table 5 Wild greens used as a food/vegetables by the local people to increase immune defenses during COVID-19 (as prescribed by local Vaidya’s/herbalists) in Central Himalaya,Uttarakhand
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3.5 Plant based Himalayan beverages

Seven different types of hot beverages (teas) prepared from various cultivated and wild plant species consumed in large quantities during the first and second phase of the Covid and were considered energetic, revitalizing and keeps the body warm during severe winters or heavy snowfall particularly in higher Himalayan region (Table 6). The Bhotiya tribal community from Niti valley reported using herbal tea and beverages were found useful, especially the one prepared with the bark of Taxus baccata. Though, the local people of the region usually consumed it 2–3 times a week, however, at the time of pandemic locals were advised by the Vaidyas to consume the local beverage and add the bark of Taxus baccata at least once a day or twice a week. Respondents confirmed the ingredients used in different combinations with different quantities for the preparation of traditional tea. In the traditional beverage as commonly prepared by the Bhotiya communities, the quantity of clarified butter (ghee) and Pinna [A dry mixture prepared by some local ingredients viz., common salt, black Pepper powder & dry mixture of Kernels of walnut (Juglans regia), apricot (Prunus armeniaca), Coconut (Cocus nucifera), Almond kernels (Prunus amygdalus) with flour of fried wheat, barley and buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum)] varied with the economic status of the family and the quantity of salt as per the taste. Beside, local people were also suggested to consume beverage (hot tea) using local spices as listed in the Table 6 to counteract the respiratory symptoms of flu in preventing colds and enhancing immunity.

Table 6 Wild and cultivated plants and quantity of different ingredients (gm/liter) used in preparation of hot beverages (teas) by the traditional mountain communities to boost the immune system in treating corona disease
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The current study emphasizes the significance of considering lesser-known wild species and Indigenous Traditional and Local Knowledge (ITLK) systems for enhancing immunity, particularly as prevalence of diseases and their negative health impact. The past studies [6, 8] have already highlighted that plant based food systems consumed by IPLCs comes from treasures of ILK from long-evolved cultures and patterns of living in local ecosystems. During the study, it was experienced and observed that traditional crops and wild bioresources were considered useful during the pandemic and their demand also increased in the markets. Certain cultivated spices such as turmeric, ginger, garlic but spices and condiments of wild origin (Allium stracheyi, Allium humile, Allium rubellium, Angelica glauca, Carum carvi, Cinnamomum tamala and Pleurospermum angelicoides) went out of stock in many villages and local markets, despite of continuous supply during lockdowns. Local people believe that most of the plants and their products are immune boosters and were considered useful in treating corona disease. However, these food systems which are intricately related to the complexities of social and economic circumstances are becoming increasingly affected by the forces of modernization and globalization [38]. The widening of the scope of food, nutrition, health and ecology has brought attention to the natural health specialists to identify more nature-based solutions for treating COVID-19 [7]. Dietary diversity is associated with higher dietary quality [11] for example, traditional agriculture and forests bio-resources are sources of several food groups containing vitamins, and macro-micronutrients for nutrition and these food groups include cereals, grains, pulses, green leafy vegetables, fruits, and mushroom cultivated and wild origin [11, 20]. Over 60% smallholder farming households in the central Himalayas rely on their local landscapes for much of their nutritional security and health benefits [39]. The majority of fruits, vegetables, and pulses are produced in more diverse agricultural landscapes [40] and the majority of food in the central Himalayan region is produced in small farms. There are proven evidences that small, diverse farms are key for supplying nutrient-rich foods in many parts of the Himalayan region. The diverse heterogeneous landscapes may be better equipped to support diverse diets, particularly in rural landscapes in which market access is low. Consumption of variety of fruit gathered from agro-forests, scattered trees, mixed as well as disturbed or edge forest provides dietary diversity and nutrition [11]. Based on our observations from the present survey it was clear that local people were forced by COVID-19 pandemic to return to their traditional food and health care systems to prevent acute respiratory infections. Since the announcement of the official lockdown, Internet, TV, Facebook, social networks, WhatsApp discussion and interaction increased about herbal remedies and medicinal foods for cough and fever, linking these symptoms with COVID-19. In pandemic news and diverse discussion forums people mostly shared ways on how to boost the immune system. During the pandemic, local Vaidays and elderly locals played an important role in creating awareness and popularizing traditional remedies for bronchitis, colds and cough, pulmonary problems, nausea, fever, pneumoniaas identified as major symptoms of the COVID-19. Panchayati Raj institutions of the state helped local migrants to return and in managing the COVID-19 health crisis. The Government of India has recently added a new mission on health to the National Action Plan on Climate Change under which the National Health Adaptation Plan is being developed. As infectious disease outbreaks are becoming a regular phenomenon in India, these health emergencies need to be addressed in disaster management and health adaptation plans, accordingly. Clinical trials and scientific validations will be required to explore scientific facts behind nutritional and medicinal properties for harnessing their future potential. This will help to strengthen preparedness, safety regulations, food access, supply chains, for securing food systems and nutrition. Planetary health approach needs to be integrated with health, food, nutrition and environmental policies together. In the wake of COVID-19, further research to build on the present scenarios of traditional food systems can help to reverse trends with relevant national food and health policies. Understanding how to improve food choices, particularly among young generation youth, of both traditional and purchased foods with education and other incentives will be greatly needed in poor and marginal areas.

4 Conclusion

The relationship between human health and nature, especially evident during the COVID-19 pandemic, emphasizes the vital role of traditional and Indigenous communities in biodiversity conservation and sustainable management. These communities offer valuable insights on balancing our relationship with nature to prevent future pandemics. Their traditional knowledge addresses challenges posed by diseases, maintaining cultural practices and food systems. However, globalization has eroded this knowledge base, impacting food diversity and health. Revitalizing interest in traditional resources is crucial to combat COVID-19 and future health crises. Integrating biological and cultural conservation is essential for long-term resilience. Research on traditional medicine and food systems can inform policies to reverse environmental degradation and promote healthy food choices. Collaborative efforts involving researchers, communities, governments, and organizations are necessary for a sustainable future in the Central Himalayan region.