1 Introduction

Large-scale spatial planning and urban development initiatives like road infrastructure have become increasingly popular in cities worldwide [1]. These projects improve connectivity [2], increase cities’ competitiveness, and attract investment [1, 3]. Roads are constructed to aid in the flow of products and services [1] and increase economic stability and quality of life [4]. A road is a way or route connecting two locations on land that has been paved or renovated to allow travel by vehicles like cars, motorcycles, and horses. They contribute significantly to the nation's economic growth and advancement and offer important social benefits [5, 6]. Design, construction, repair, and maintenance of roads are all parts of the complex of operations that make up road construction. Any nation's level of economic growth may be inferred from the quality of its road construction, which is also a crucial element in projecting a favorable image of the nation overseas [7] stated that several consistent efforts had been made to address the lack of road infrastructure, resulting in a massive increase in the number of road projects [8] across Ghana in recent years. Despite the many positive impacts, road construction activities are known to produce enormous amounts of dust into the environment resulting in air pollution [9]. Usually, in Ghana, roads are constructed based on political gains, the springing up of private residential facilities, and industrial establishments [2]. The study of road traffic, stone thickness, road alignment, and slopes led to the development of systems for building roads that used larger stones set in a regular, compact pattern and covered with smaller stones to create a solid layer [10]. Asphalt and concrete are promising and are widely used in modern-day road construction [11]. Roads have a significant role in economic growth and development and have significant social advantages. They are of critical importance to making a nation grow and prosper. A road network is essential for ensuring access to social, health, education, and employment services, and for other reasons related to the battle against poverty. Roads facilitate access to new locations and promote social and economic advancement. Because of these factors, road infrastructure is the most significant public asset [12].

Air pollution caused by road construction harms the environment, degrading the region’s air quality [13]. The degraded air resulting from road construction mainly contains silica, among other compounds [14, 15]. When inhaled into the human body, silica can lead to lung cancer and other respiratory tract infections such as silicosis, cough, cold, etc. [14, 16]. These diseases impact human health greatly and can have even worsening effects on people with underlying health conditions such as asthma, which may lead to the loss of life [17]. On the other hand, road construction is linked to environmental pollution and risks, which impact people's health and well-being in urban and rural areas [16].

Also, the varying implications of road construction activity on residents, commuters, traders, hawkers, and on-site workers on the road strongly correlate with the place's socioeconomic activity [1, 2]. Traders along the stretch of road construction activity are displaced to make way for the construction to go on as when the road is completed, it will improve living conditions [1] and trading conditions; but the displacement of traders and hawkers during road construction greatly impacts their socio-economic lives [2]. According to a recent report by the World Resources Institute (a Maharashtra government knowledge partner), building dust is responsible for 71% of Mumbai's air pollution [2]. Air, water, and noise pollution result from these pollutants, causing irreversible damage to human health, with a concerning link between pollutants and cancer [18]. The formation of dust from vehicle movement, transport of building materials, and noise created by operating machines are the main types of environmental pollution associated with the construction of highways [19]. Breathing these specks of dust can damage the lungs and health. In Fig. 1, dust particles are deposited in the respiratory system based on their size [20]. As mentioned, the main dust-related diseases affecting construction workers and residents are; Lung cancer, Silicosis, Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and Asthma.

Fig. 1
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A study area Map of Atonsu lake road showing major towns along the road

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Various methods, such as roads, are employed to assess construction projects’ impact. An example is the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) [21]. Khanani et al. [1] and [2] assessed the socioeconomic aspect of road construction, while our research looked at the socioeconomic and health impact of road construction. The greatest difficulties in road development and construction come from what seems to be the city's unplanned urban growth, which has evolved in response to the city’s dense population and precedes the creation of numerous road networks [21]. As a result, there is already intense competition for land use in Ghana, with various residential communities and commercial buildings battling for available space with the operations of mechanics, artisans, markets, car parks, churches, taxi ranks, salons, and food vendors [21]. The location of Atonsu lake road will improve the connectivity of the adjoining towns within the stretch, bringing about competitiveness and attracting investment. However, the delay in its construction and the nature of the road could impact human health and socioeconomic activities. The aim of this paper is to assess the impact of road construction in Ghana on Traders and inhabitants living along highways, using the construction of Atonsu lake road as a case study. The research will help decision-makers and developers know the challenges that ensue when projects of such nature delay completion.

2 Research methodology

2.1 Study area

The study area is situated in the center of the Ashanti region within the boundaries of the Atonsu lake road in the Asokwa Municipal District and Bosomtwe District. It lies within the latitude 6˚40′39″ N and longitude 1˚35′2″ W with a total land size of 25.31 km2 and a population of over 125,642 according to the 2021 population and housing census. Atonsu lake road was chosen because it’s a major road that connects many towns where socioeconomic activities occur and its construction has also taken too long. This study used five major towns along the lake road: Atonsu, Agogo, Esereso, Feyiase, and Aputuogya. These towns were chosen since they comprise the hub of commercial activities along the route, with market centers, bus terminals, filling stations, hospitals, and schools. Every day, people commute in and out of these areas to go about their daily routines, making them highly susceptible to both the health and socio-economic effects of road construction.

2.2 Sample size and sampling technique

A mixed research method was employed in the research work. The quantitative method was used for primary data collection through the distribution of questionnaires, which surveyed the perception of inhabitants on the construction activity, and its health and socioeconomic effects. Through a qualitative method, data from the Kumasi south hospital was used to assess the impact of the activity on health. This was done by using records of inhabitants who had visited the facility and reported of respiratory-related disease within the period of the road construction. The random sampling technique was used in this study to disseminate questionnaires. Regarding the populace of the Asokwa metropolitan assembly, 400 individuals participated in the survey using Slovin’s formula [22]. This sample size will give us sufficient data to be evaluated and generalized to the whole population [23].

$${\text{Slovins Formula = }}\frac{{\text{N}}}{{1 + {\text{Ne}}^{2} }}$$

where N is the total population, e is the margin error.

The population of the Asokwa municipality was used as given by the 2021 Population and Housing Census report. And a margin of error used was 0.05 since that was the p-value used throughout our analysis of results.

$$\begin{gathered} = \frac{125642}{{1 + 125642\left( {0.05} \right)^{2} }} \hfill \\ = { 398}.{7 } \approx { 399} \hfill \\ \end{gathered}$$

2.3 Survey instruments

Questionnaires and key informant interviews were used for the primary data collection in the field [24]. 400 questionnaires were randomly distributed to road users, including traders, residents, commercial drivers, onsite workers, and hawkers, within the study area to assess the impact of road construction on socioeconomic and health impact. These respondent types were used because they comprise the people who live alongside and use the road and conduct business activities on the stretch. All 400 questionnaires were retrieved as respondents were assisted to fill and return on the spot. The questionnaire was in two sections: Section I and II. Section I: focused on the demographic characteristics of the respondents, such as gender, marital status, level of education, and occupation. Section II: centered mainly on the road and its impacts on the health and socio-economic lives of the respondents in three sub-sections (A, B, C), where ‘A’ asks questions about the Road construction and its inception, ‘B’ focuses on assessing the health status of respondents and their respective hospitals visited and ‘C’ evaluated the socio-economic impact of the Road construction activities on the respondents. ‘A’ and some parts of ‘B’ were developed on a Likert rating scale measuring respondents’ opinions by asking how much they agreed or disagreed with a particular statement. While ‘C’ and the other part of ‘B’ are a mix of binary choice, multiple-choice and open-ended questions, allowing respondents to freely share their perceptions and opinions and provide precise responses to the subject. A hypothesis was drawn from the responses generated from the questionnaire, which will be validated in the later part of this study. A survey was conducted at the various health facilities through key informant interviews with the records department of the hospitals along the Atonsu lake road. Responses from the questionnaire provided specific details of the hospitals to visit. The survey provided information on how these hospitals’ operations have been impacted by the activities of the road construction and the kinds of health problems reported at the hospital since the construction of the road began.

Secondary data from the hospital’s statistical unit was obtained to determine the number and respiratory-related diseases reported to the health facility during the several phases of the construction. The diseases reported over the previous years of the road construction phase to the current phase will be studied to enhance our data analysis process.

The survey was conducted according to established ethical guidelines, and consent was obtained from the participant. The Humanities and Social Sciences (HuSSREC) of Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology approved of this research.

2.4 Data analyses

The data collected from these surveys were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Model (Version 20) and XLSTAT (Version 2018).

3 Results

3.1 Socio-demographic information

As shown in Table 1, a total of 400 respondents were interviewed during the research, there were more males than females. Out of this number, 53.75% were married, 41% were single and 5.25% were divorced. With respect to the age variable, the highest number of respondents were between 26 and 35, representing 31.3% and the lowest were respondents above 61, representing 13,3%. Considering the educational levels of the people interviewed, most of them have secondary level 54.3%, with only 4% who had various postgraduate programs. This indicates that it is a highly educated community. Concerning occupations, they were categorized into trade, technical, professional, transport services [drivers and conductors (mates)] and others (students and Unemployed) here, the highest number of the respondents are in trading 47.0%, 18.75% various professional jobs and 5.75% into technical jobs.

Table 1 Socio-demographic information on the people of Atonsu lake road
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3.2 Perception of road

As shown in Table 2, out of the 400 people interviewed, 84.75% agreed that they were given prior notice before the construction, whiles 15.25% disagreed with having prior notice. Most traders (63.0%) disagreed with allowing traders to relocate temporarily. A large number of people, 52.25%, disagreed with the contractor doing regular dust abatement.

Table 2 Perception of respondents on notice for road construction activity in the study area
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3.3 Perception of the population on health

As shown in Fig. 2, 81% of the respondents agreed with claims of high levels of noise pollution, while 19% disagreed. Most of the respondents confirmed having difficulty breathing. 67.75% agreed to have experienced adverse effects of the construction on their health, while 32.35% disagreed. A majority agreed to develop eye irritations and most of them reported this at the hospital. 59.25% were unaffected by the high noise level and 40.75% agreed to have experienced the effects of noise on their health. Most respondents reported symptoms of respiratory tract infection.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Perception of respondents on health effects of road construction activity in the area

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3.4 Trend of upper respiratory tract infections from Agogo hospital

Figure 3 shows that over 2800 people reported to the hospital with RTIs in 2018. This, however, saw a drop in 2019, which recorded a total of 1856 cases. In 2020 we saw a steep reduction, which amounted to a total of 526 cases being recorded. In 2021 we saw a steep decline, with the total number of cases recorded as 613 cases.

Fig. 3
figure 3

Impact of road construction activities on the health of road users within the study area

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3.5 Socioeconomic impact

The socioeconomic impact of the construction activity of the area focused mainly on how it has affected the income levels of inhabitants. The results showed that road construction strongly correlated with the area's socioeconomic activities, such as the frequency with which clients patronize the goods and services of service providers [25]. To find out if the income levels of the traders were affected, data on the range of income levels before and during the construction process was taken. Also, data on the frequency of clients’ patronage was taken to determine the socioeconomic impact of road construction on traders. To ascertain if these variables (income levels and clients’ patronage before and during the road construction) are significant with each other, a cross-tabulation Chi-square test was run at a confidence level of 95% which yielded a p-value of 0.00 each for before and during, showing high significance.

From the analysis, many respondents earn between GHC 50–400 and GHC 400–800, indicating 65 and 53 of the total questionnaires administered. Also, for income levels between GHC 801–1200, a total of 38 respondents was recorded. Of the respondents earning > GHC 1200, there were 28 respondents.

From the analysis, Table 4 assesses the relationship between the income levels of respondents and the frequency of client patronage during the construction process, a total of 165 of the sample size, were earning between GHC 50–400 and a total of 51 of the respondents earned between GHC 400–800. For income levels between GHC 800–1200, a total of 29 respondents were recorded and for income levels > GHC 1200, a total of 13 respondents were recorded. The results indicated that there are more responses ending in less than GHC 800.

4 Discussion of findings

4.1 Socio-demographic information

In the study area, there were more males than females and socioeconomically, this could cause a lot of social vices in the area [26]. The data indicated that 47% of the respondents are into trading and the displacement of the majority of them, as a result of the road construction, could lead to unemployment. Also, 24.5% worked in the technical and transportation sectors; hence, the road construction delay and the road's bad nature could affect their incomes. Most of the inhabitants are youth; between 26 and 35 years, the road construction and the delay due to financial challenges could affect economic activities. This could affect the livelihoods of these youth within the catchment area.

4.2 Perception on road

The majority of the traders whose opinions were collected during the survey at the markets on the Atonsu lake road believed they had received appropriate notice of the road construction before it started. However, there were no other locations or provisions for them to temporarily relocate during the road construction. This meant that most of the displaced market traders effectively went out of business or had to scale down in their trade size since most of them had to compete for space or even perch with other unaffected traders. From the interviews with the traders along the roadside, it was recorded that some traders lost their containers, and stores and resorted to using a small table shaded by an umbrella stand to trade, whiles some had to put a cloth on the floor to sell their items. This indicates that in addition to losing their business place, they were continuously exposed to hot and humid weather. Most traders discussed how they had lost customers because certain customers chose to support specific stall layouts and structures. Although it has been theorized that the location of a trader's choice of trade in a market does not directly correlate with the trader's survival, location is still a key factor in determining whether a deal is successful or not. It has been confirmed by the decrease in earnings from the traders as they moved [2]. Due to the regular switching of positions and absence due to road construction activities, customers who frequently relied on positions to locate a trader could no longer do so. As the construction and demolition exercises were extremely disruptive and chaotic to typical shopping activities, some customers would hunt for new dealers to buy from, while others would be discouraged from attending the market and visiting alternate markets. The traders said that, in addition to the complaints, the contractor was present on the site every day until the project was completed. The disruption and chaos caused by the road construction, such as the noise and dust, prevented the dealers from taking a day off. Additionally, the construction was completed earlier than expected. This indicates that many things changed in their environment since some could not return to their original positions and others' health was affected [27]. The fact that the contractor barely performed dust abatement meant that the air they breathed could affect their health, and the majority of the traders complained that it made their products look unappealing because dust accumulated on them. An interview with the drivers revealed that they had to spend significantly more money having their cars washed because they now had to visit the washing bay daily, impacting their revenue. Several also stated that some passengers refused to board their vehicle because the seats were covered with dust or the vehicles lacked air conditioning, forcing them to breathe dust in the air [19]. Market vendors whose operations are close to road construction are displaced, particularly women, who lack alternatives and experience negative effects on their ability to make a living as traders. Instead of reducing informality, road construction initiatives that don't consider the predicament of traders frequently end up escalating challenges and inconveniences [27].

4.3 Perception on health

A health assessment suggested that more of the population experienced adverse health effects from the construction, associating their symptoms with eye irritations and RTIs. The movement of vehicles and transportation of construction materials contributed to the formation of dust clouds [28], which resulted in difficulty in breathing, as most of the population agreed. According to a greater percentage of the residents, headaches, coughs, sore throats, catarrh, among others, were more prevalent among them during the construction’s climax phase due to their consistent exposure to dust. In their research, Ghanney et al. [29], these symptoms are associated with respiratory tract infections, which addresses the effects of dust exposure on street sweepers. However, some residents failed to report their complications to the hospital because they couldn’t afford the cost, especially in their current state of low sales and reduced income levels. Meanwhile, the analyzed data acquired from Agogo Hospital showed a contrary report that construction activities’ air pollution greatly impacts human health. This data shows a greater number of RTI cases reported in 2018, which was before the construction of the Atonsu lake road. During the construction period (2019–2021), there was a reduction in the number of cases, with 2020 noted as the year with very few cases reported, which contrasts with our hypothesis. This contrast can be linked to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, which was on the rise in 2020 [30]. We can associate the reduction in the number of RTI cases in this period to a number of factors that followed the pandemic. One major factor was the fear of being stigmatized with Covid-19 when you visit the hospital with symptoms of respiratory infections because they are very similar to that of COVID-19 [31]. Most people resorted to treating mild coughs, catarrh, fever, etc., traditionally by preparing herbal drinks with neem tree, Hibiscus leaves, “pr3kese” a local spice that is known to have various health benefits. Induced quarantine by the government lessened frequent plying of the roads and kept people indoors, primarily reducing interactions and exposure to dust from the road, which can be seen as an appositive aspect of the pandemic [1]. Some residents talked about frequently inhaling warm water and wearing nose masks to protect them from the dust instead of the COVID-19 virus when the ban on quarantine was lifted. The fear of contracting the virus also made people adopt measures such as frequent hand washing, regular use of sanitizer, avoiding contact with infected areas, etc., which protected them from the Covid-19 virus and other viruses that could cause respiratory infections. [32], elaborated on a category of Noise-Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL) which was most widespread in hearing loss associated with a blast overpressure, known as blast-induced hearing loss. Residents around the construction site complained of extreme noise pollution, especially when contractors had to blast rocks for construction. The discomfort associated with this activity was difficult to bear; however, most of the population did not experience any health complications related to the noise. They attested to the fact that advance notice was given to all residents to evacuate their homes for some days when the blasting exercise was about to take place. This can account for why most of them were not affected health-wise by the noise since the distance from the blast is a major factor in determining the effect of noise on human health [33].

4.4 Socio-economic impact

4.4.1 Income and frequency of clients cross tabulation, before the construction process

In our bid to understand the relationship and significance of frequency on the income levels of the people, we run a cross-tabulation Chi-square analysis at a confidence level of 95%. This yielded a significance value of P < 0.00, indicating that the relationship is very significant in Tables 3 and 4. This revealed that the income levels of the people in the Atonsu lake road area before the construction primarily ranged from GHC 50.00–800.00. This is seen in the total number of people with such income levels, i.e. 192 out of 400. This represents almost half the sample size. Hence, this indicates that road construction has impacted their income levels. Also, the results during the construction process, revealed that patronage frequency was very low for more than 110 of the sample size, and ranged between GHC 50.00–400.00 income levels. This represents a sharp decline in the frequency and income levels recorded before. According to [34, 35], the minimum wage in Ghana is GHC 13.53/day and the minimum monthly salary is GHC 365.31. This is consistent with most respondents’ earnings (GHC 50.00–400.00). However, this could have been better if the road construction activity was critically checked to reduce its impact on their socio-economic lives.

Table 3 Income and frequency of clients cross tabulation, before the construction process
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Table 4 Income and frequency of clients cross tabulation during the construction process
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5 Conclusion and future perspective

From the study, the main health complication associated with road construction activity is Upper Respiratory Tract Infections (URTI). This decreased in frequency in the number of cases recorded due to the rise of COVID-19 at the time and its accompanying restrictions and stigmatization. Also, the income levels of the people showed to be very significant with the rate at which people engaged in business activities, as more people moved from earning between GHC 50–800 to earning between GHC 50–400. Although income levels were reduced, it is still consistent with the minimum wage in Ghana, it could have been better if not for the impact of the road construction. Nonetheless, we recommend that contractors invest more in dust abatement procedures, by employing the services of adequate water tankers. Appropriate reallocation schemes should be used, such as proper market developments and affordable housing schemes. Also, a clear separation between developed and undeveloped areas is necessary to avoid the relocation of residents owing to road extension projects. The local government authorities and traditional leaders should also properly enforce the legislation to prohibit construction on roadways, which would later be demolished to make space for expansion projects when the region is expanded and the current road infrastructure is at capacity. Road maintenance should be done regularly throughout the nation to maximize the longevity and durability of roads. Finally, further studies can be conducted on other health pollutants relating to road construction, its harmful effects, and the age groups affected more.