1 Introduction

The neoclassical economic theory explains that people make rational decisions in self-interest towards maximising their utility, and the rational decision is consistent with context-free reality. Based on this context-free assumption, the neoclassical consumer has complete and perfect information about the available choices in the decision-making, and the consumer’s satisfaction with the product depends on the rational consumer’s acquired utility from the service. While this rational explanation of the consumer’s evaluation of a product, utility and satisfaction has dominated for a century, the cognitive limitation argument (Simon 1959, 1967) and prospect theory of decisions (Kahneman and Tversky 1979; Tversky and Kahneman 1974) have changed this paradigm of neoclassical thinking. Construal Level Theory (CLT) is an addition to this context-dependent thinking. CLT contends that concrete-abstract thinking affects the psyche of the person or group in the decision process, leading to different outcomes. It further explains that people tend to perceive events that are closer to them on the spatial or temporal distances, and whereas events that are further away are perceived more abstractly compared to the events are perceived proximally (Trope and Liberman 2010). Between the concrete and abstract spectra of thoughts, CLT explains that concrete narratives are proximal and abstract narratives are distal. Therefore, the consumer’s expectations and judgement vary on concrete-abstract thinking because of the construal levels (Liberman et al. 2002, 2007).

The transition from concrete to abstract narratives is not a linear or isolated process. Rather, it occurs within a complex interplay of the contextual frameworks of different social institutions. Notably, one of the critical contexts influencing these narratives is the domain of social media, which significantly impacts the shaping and perception of reputations. The reporting media for the concrete-abstract narratives has a social status that affects and reflects on the consumer’s narrative (Alexander and Stadler Blank 2018; Fiedler 2007). Social media becomes proximal to the consumer when it is highly ranked and distal when it has a low-rank. The extant literature focuses on the subject of stimuli of the media in the analysis (Reeves et al. 2016). A limited number of empirical studies indicate that the corporate reputation of the media moderates this relationship between service delivery and consumer satisfaction. Putting media ranking into the equation resolves whether narrative level construal functions independent of the media outlet. CLT suggests that high rank has concrete construal versus low-rank media. This investigation answers this question, using the moderating role of the media ranking between concrete narratives and consumer satisfaction with DiDi’s services in China.

2 Theoretical framework

Construal level theory (CLT) explains consumers’ satisfaction towards a product/service varies on the psychic distance, and psychic distance is one of the four dimensions of psychic distance (Liberman et al. 2002; Liberman and Trope 1998, 2008). CLT posits that a consumer’s judgement becomes biased on the abstract-concrete narrative variation in the construal levels: high versus low. High construal levels represent distance and abstract mindset, and low construal levels represent proximity and concrete mindset. Distance is cognitive, and proximity is experiential because thinking refers to abstract things, and experience refers to one’s five senses. The negative effects of distance tend to be lower than the negative effects of proximity; conversely, the positive effects of distance tend to be more than the positive effects of proximity (Trope and Liberman 2010). To explain these qualitative and quantitative differences in concrete-abstract narrative effects, CLT contends that the psychic distance of a person from an object invokes higher-level construal, and higher-level construal represents an abstract object far from the experience of the five senses.

For example, as one moves away from the object, reality becomes abstract with distance passage. These concrete-abstract effects of narratives reflect on the satisfaction of consumers on the one hand and the location of the consumer’s narrative on the media ranking on the other. CLT applies to the consumer’s location on the narrative spectrum, and social media ranking reflects the value judgement. Consistent with CLT support that high construal versus low construal reflects different effects on the mental models and their valuation (Trope and Liberman 2010), several studies have shown that concrete versus abstract narrative affects consumer satisfaction, and the reporting media affects this relationship through its reputation.

Media ranking plays a role in moderating the effects of concrete-abstract narratives on consumer satisfaction within the framework of CLT. This theory suggests that individuals mentally construe or interpret information at different levels of abstraction. Concrete information is perceived as more specific, detailed, and context-dependent, while abstract information is more general, holistic, and context-independent. Regarding media ranking, it refers to the position or prominence given to certain narratives or stories in the media, such as news articles, advertisements, or online content. The ranking of these narratives can influence how individuals perceive and process the information presented to them. In the context of CLT, media ranking can moderate the effects of concrete-abstract narratives on consumer satisfaction through attention and exposure, cognitive processing, and perceived credibility. The current study addresses these questions with the following hypotheses indicated in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Conceptual model of concrete narrative and media ranking. Note: Dependent variable: negative (-1), neutral (0), and positive (+1). Normalised and standardised

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2.1 CLT relevance to media ranking

While the narrative and consumers’ construed valance are relevant to explaining CLT assumptions, the application of CLT to social media ranking and its psychic distance is less obvious in the extant literature. This section highlights a brief link between CLT and social media ranking, whether it is proximal or distal from the consumer.

The application of CLT in understanding consumer satisfaction narratives based on valence holds significant relevance to the general assumptions of psychic distance (Trope and Liberman 2010). According to CLT, individuals may articulate their experiences with taxi-hailing services in either concrete or abstract terms (Humphreys et al. 2021). A concrete narrative delves into specific details, potentially leading to a more nuanced evaluation of consumer satisfaction. Conversely, an abstract narrative provides a more generalised, less detailed account, possibly resulting in a less emotionally charged evaluation. This direct link between the concrete narrative and consumer satisfaction, post-service usage and trip completion, finds support from CLT.

Similarly, CLT positions social media rankings along the distance-proximity spectrum, with high-ranking media being either distal or proximal compared to low-ranking media. It suggests that the level of concreteness in narratives may also influence how individuals perceive and interpret social media reputation rankings. High-ranking media is generally perceived as more proximal, indicating that it is considered closer or more relevant to an individual’s immediate concerns or experiences (Ellithorpe et al. 2016; Williams and Bargh 2008). Conversely, low-ranking media is seen as more distal, indicating that it is perceived as less relevant or more removed from an individual’s immediate context (Ellithorpe et al. 2016; Williams and Bargh 2008). For example, a high-ranking journal is more proximal to a typical scholar than a low-ranking academic journal. This social status effect is what Merton called ‘the Mathew Effect’ (Merton 1968) and has been explored in specific contexts of taxi-hailing services (Yu et al. 2021).

The level of concreteness construed through media ranking can play a significant role in how individuals perceive and interpret the meaning of their experience with the service. A concrete perspective focuses on specific details or aspects of a media platform’s reputation, considering it in a detailed, specific manner. An abstract perspective, on the other hand, views it in broader strokes, considering it in a more generalised sense. This can apply to both the reader and the writer of the narrative after consuming the service. By applying the concept of concrete construal, recent experiences can be described in more detailed and specific terms, reflecting a concrete construal. In contrast, more distant experiences might be recounted in broader strokes, aligning with an abstract construal. This aspect of CLT can significantly influence how consumers articulate their experiences in online comments. Thus, social media ranking distinguishes and categorises narratives based on their level of concreteness to accurately capture the nuances of consumer satisfaction.

Incorporating CLT, specifically focusing on concrete versus abstract construal, provides a powerful framework for comprehending how individuals mentally represent and communicate their experiences (Malik 2023a). This perspective directly pertains to your research, shedding light on how narrative style influences consumer satisfaction evaluations and how social media reputation rankings moderate this relationship. It also guides the data interpretation and analysis approach, emphasising the significance of construal level in understanding consumer narratives.

2.2 Hypotheses

2.2.1 Consumer satisfaction

Consumer satisfaction refers to an individual’s subjective evaluation or assessment regarding a product, service, or overall consumer experience. It represents the degree to which a particular offering or interaction fulfils a consumer’s expectations and desires. Consumer satisfaction is influenced by various factors, including product quality, service delivery, customer support, pricing, convenience, and the overall value provided. When consumers are satisfied, they perceive that their needs and expectations have been met or exceeded, resulting in a positive emotional state. On the other hand, consumer dissatisfaction arises when there is a perceived gap between expectations and the actual experience, leading to negative emotions and a sense of dissatisfaction. In Asia, customer satisfaction plays a crucial role in shaping consumer behaviour and brand loyalty (Yi and Nataraajan 2018).

While satisfied customers are likely to return to purchase the service, dissatisfied consumers are more likely to switch to alternative options, voice complaints, and negatively impact a brand’s reputation. Consumer satisfaction with service providers like Uber and DiDi can vary depending on individual experiences, expectations, and specific interactions with the platforms. Four main factors stand out in the literature as some common aspects influencing consumer satisfaction with ride-hailing services such as DiDi: convenience, reliability and safety, pricing and value for money. One of the primary reasons people choose ride-hailing services like Uber and DiDi is the convenience they offer. Factors such as easy booking through mobile apps, quick response times, and availability of rides can contribute to consumer satisfaction. When users find it hassle-free to book a ride and have prompt and reliable service, it often leads to higher satisfaction levels. Consumers expect a reliable and safe experience when using ride-hailing services. This experience includes factors such as the quality and condition of vehicles, professionalism and behaviour of drivers, adherence to safety protocols, and efficient navigation. Instances of safety concerns or inconsistent service may negatively impact consumer satisfaction.

Pricing and value for money is the other contributing factor in satisfaction. Pricing is a significant consideration for consumers when choosing between different ride-hailing services. Consumers generally seek competitive pricing and transparent fare structures. Additionally, they evaluate the overall value for money based on factors such as service quality, comfort, and convenience relative to the price paid. If consumers perceive that the service they receive justifies the cost, it contributes to their satisfaction. Customer support is the third main factor. The availability and effectiveness of customer support can influence consumer satisfaction. Prompt and helpful responses to queries, complaints, or issues related to the service can enhance the overall experience. On the other hand, poor customer support can lead to frustration and dissatisfaction.

The most distinctive factor is the user experience in the service of such companies. The overall user experience of the mobile app or platform can also impact consumer satisfaction. Factors such as ease of use, intuitive interface, and clear information communication contribute to a positive user experience. App features like real-time tracking, estimated arrival times, and seamless payment options can enhance user satisfaction. While the user’s interaction with the service reflects the consumer’s evaluation and feedback, the reporting process and the narrative characteristics offer a unique opportunity to analyse consumer satisfaction in the context of CLT that separates concrete dimensions on one side of the spectrum and abstract dimensions on the other side of the spectrum in the narrative theory (Malik 2023b).

2.3 Concrete narratives and consumer satisfaction

Concrete versus abstract narrative influences consumer satisfaction in an inverse relationship because of cognitive proximity. The cognitive distance between abstract and concrete representations plays a crucial role in determining customer satisfaction, as supported by CLT (Construal Level Theory) and various empirical studies (Semin and Fiedler 1988). According to CLT, the perceived cognitive distance between a consumer and a product or experience can lead to distortion and misunderstandings, affecting satisfaction. Two key assumptions arise from this theory. Firstly, when it comes to abstract and concrete experiences, consumers tend to derive more satisfaction from greater cognitive distance (perceived psychic distance) than cognitive proximity. Cognitive distance creates positive consumer perceptions by increasing the anticipated rewards and diminishing the perceived risks associated with the experience. Additionally, the distant place tends to overshadow negative experiences, further enhancing consumer satisfaction Zauberman et al. (2009) explain that the subjective judgements of the psychic distance change in the trade-off between the abstract and place and that the distal abstract is more positive than the distal place (Trope and Liberman 2010). The first point is that as the psychic distance of concrete increases, individuals. Secondly, within cognitive distance, the distal abstract (distant place or hypothetical scenarios) generates more positive emotions compared to an equivalent unit of the distal place (distant place experiences). This implies that abstract representations, as opposed to concrete ones, generate more optimism when the cognitive distance is the same. Therefore, the abstract-concrete distinction influences consumer satisfaction, with abstract expressions fostering a more positive outlook.

Numerous empirical studies have explicitly examined these issues within the “distance line” context - comparing the cognitive distance of abstract and concrete representations. Essentially, as the cognitive distance of abstract representations increases, the cognitive distance of concrete representations decreases, resulting in a trade-off between the two. The perception of consumer satisfaction changes with the change in the construed distance (Malik 2023b). Based on abstract-concrete representations of reality, consumers are more likely to construe abstract representations positively than concrete representations. This positive construal is reflected in their attitudes towards the product they use, albeit implicitly. Subjective judgements of cognitive distance undergo changes when comparing the abstract and the place, with the distal abstract being perceived as more positive than the distal place.

Psychic distance also influences the way people remember events. As the cognitive distance of concrete experiences increases, individuals tend to lose specific details and rely more on higher-level schematic representations. In other words, people remember the general essence of concrete events as they move farther away from them in cognitive distance rather than recalling specific details (Malik 2023b). Furthermore, people tend to make inferences about abstract representations, which replace their cognitive memory of concrete experiences. The distal abstract is far removed from the current position of concrete experiences. Consequently, the benefits associated with an experience become more important as the cognitive distance increases, while costs gain more significance as the cognitive distance decreases (Malik 2023b).

First, high construal and psychic distance increase assimilation and decrease contrast (Malik 2023b). Second, the abstract psychic construals are more schematic, abstract, and coherent than concrete (Liberman et al. 2002). Third, abstract construes benefit more than concrete processes (Malik et al. 2023). Fourth, regrets of inaction are versus the regrets of action, and inaction is associated with the abstract, while action is associated with concrete perspectives (Leach and Plaks 2009). Fifth, the distance creates optimism. Last, the distance influences the consumer perception, depending on the consumer’s location on that distance. We propose the following baseline hypothesis.

  • Hypothesis 1: Consumer feedback that provides concrete, specific details about their experience with a service will be more likely to result in a negative evaluation of the service’s quality compared to feedback that employs abstract or general statements.

2.4 Media ranking and consumer satisfaction

Media ranking influences consumer satisfaction in addition to the quality and quantity of services. CLT provides insights into how the ranking of digital media platforms can influence consumer satisfaction (Yu et al. 2021). According to CLT, the perceived cognitive distance between consumers and digital media platforms significantly shapes their evaluations and satisfaction levels. When consumers encounter a highly ranked digital media platform, they tend to perceive it as psychologically distant, representing a desirable and superior option. This cognitive distance creates a positive construal, leading to optimistic expectations and higher satisfaction levels. The high-ranking serves as a cue for credibility, quality, and reliability, making consumers more inclined to believe that the platform will fulfil their needs and provide a satisfying experience.

In contrast, encountering a low-ranked digital media platform is associated with a shorter cognitive distance, making it psychologically proximal. This close proximity amplifies consumers’ focus on concrete details, leading to a more critical evaluation of the platform’s shortcomings. The low-ranking signals potential risks, lower quality, or inadequate content, which can decrease consumer satisfaction. Moreover, CLT suggests that the abstract nature of ranking information influences consumer satisfaction (Yu et al. 2021). Higher-ranking platforms are often associated with abstract qualities such as reputation, popularity, and overall performance. These abstract cues generate optimistic expectations and positive evaluations, increasing consumer satisfaction. In contrast, lower-ranked platforms are linked to abstract cues indicating lower quality or relevance, leading to less favourable evaluations and reduced satisfaction (Yu et al. 2021).

Furthermore, CLT emphasises the role of psychic distance in shaping consumer judgements. The ranking of digital media platforms represents a form of psychic distance, where higher-rankings are perceived as psychologically distant and lower rankings as psychologically proximal. As cognitive distance increases, consumers tend to focus more on abstract and high-level features, leading to more positive evaluations and higher satisfaction.

  • Hypothesis 2: Consumers who provide feedback on the consumption of a service in high-ranking media outlets are more inclined to give a positive evaluation of the service’s quality.

2.5 Media ranking moderation

Media ranking moderates the link between consumer narratives placed online after the purchase of the service, implying that high-ranking media platforms induce concrete or abstract narratives related to construed levels and values in the consumer’s mindset. According to CLT (Trope and Liberman 2010), high-ranking reflects abstractness and distance, and low-ranking reflects concreteness or proximity. Several mechanisms explain whether, how and why media ranking is likely to moderate the link between the consumer’s post-purchase narrative and satisfaction (Yu et al. 2021). Firstly, attention and exposure increases with high-ranking media. Media ranking determines the visibility and exposure of different narratives to consumers. Highly ranked or prominently positioned narratives tend to attract more attention from consumers. If a concrete narrative is given a higher-ranking, it is more likely to capture consumers’ attention and engage them in a detailed and context-dependent manner.

On the other hand, abstract narratives given a higher-ranking media may be more influential in shaping consumers’ overall perception and evaluation of a product or service. Secondly, cognitive processing levels (concrete and abstract) reflect on the valuation (Malik et al. 2023). Concrete narratives tend to elicit more specific and detailed cognitive processing, while abstract narratives lead to more holistic and global processing. Depending on the media ranking, consumers may be more likely to engage in concrete or abstract processing. This processing style can influence how consumers interpret and evaluate the information, affecting their satisfaction with the product or service being discussed.

Thirdly, perceived credibility reflects on consumer satisfaction through media ranking, and because of the reputation of the media sources, consumers tend to associate higher media ranking with higher credibility and trustworthiness. If a concrete narrative is given a higher order, consumers may perceive it as more credible due to its specific and detailed nature. In the education sector, concrete disciplines differ from the abstract disciplines in affecting the audience (student) satisfaction (Malik et al. 2023). Conversely, higher-ranking abstract narratives may be perceived as more credible due to their general and holistic perspective (Malik et al. 2023). It implies that concrete-abstract construals matter with the reputation of the platform upon which the entries are made in the cyberspace. This perceived credibility can shape consumers’ satisfaction by influencing their attitudes and beliefs about the product or service.

  • Hypothesis 3: The reputation ranking of social media platforms moderates the relationship between the effects of concrete versus abstract narratives and consumer evaluations of the service quality.”

3 Methodology

The research context of consumer satisfaction reported has a multifaceted setting. First, consumer satisfaction reflects the post-purchase feedback from the consumer of the product or service at the individual level of analysis. Second, the sentiment pertains to the assessment of technological service quality within the domain of the digital economy, signifying an appraisal of the service’s quality. In this particular context, the study concentrates on DiDi Global Inc., a company recognised for its digital technology platform. The firm offers app-based services, including “taxi-hailing, chauffeur, hitch and other forms of shared mobility as well as auto solutions, food delivery, inter-city freight and financial services”.Footnote 1 DiDi uses AI (Artificial Intelligence) technology in China, Asia and Latin America as an intermediary between the taxi industry, the automobile industry and transportation service providers. Third, the current study focuses on the Chinese consumer satisfaction analysis; therefore, it is within the national rather than between the national setting in the design and analysis.

The research design deals with the real data rather than surveys, laboratory experiments or simulations. First, it has the merits of a large sample compared to laboratory experiments. Second, it is based on objective data based on voluntary input rather than subjective data based on questionnaires. Experiments and simulations generalise from a small sample to a large population; our sample has the potential to capture patterns at a broader level. Third, the prior literature represents the Western context to support CLT theory; our study tests the role of CLT in the Chinese context. Chinese context is different in abstract-concrete dimensions, both in language and social structure (Langendonk 2020; Murton and Lord 2020; Weber and Jia 2007). Using data from China has its contextual merits for such a study regarding the consumer’s feedback on the service satisfaction of DiDi.

We obtained unstructured data of consumers’ comments on DiDi’s services, reported from 2017 to 2019 across China. Multiple digital outlets allow consumer feedback. Baidu integrated those comments from all outlets in social and digital media. We obtained data from multiple online sources in China in 2019. Each entry comprises textual narratives, date and distance, and media outlets. Fortunately, the data were translated into English by AI (artificial intelligence) systems in China, and we compared our systems for the translation into English from the Chinese version. They were identical (94%) to conclude the data reliability after translation into English. We cleaned, coded and transformed the data for our analytical purpose to answer the psychic question. Multiple prior studies have used textual data from different settings (Schreurs et al. 2020; Yu et al. 2021).

3.1 Variables

3.1.1 Dependent variable

The dependent variable represents the valence of consumer satisfaction in terms of positive (satisfied) or negative (dissatisfied) with the service of DiDi company. To gather a comprehensive range of consumer satisfaction, we obtained the data using Baidu’s integrated resource system to collect and integrate comments from various online media outlets on DiDi by its consumers. These comments were written by DiDi customers from different locations across the country from 2014 to 2019. The Baidu analytics used satisfaction semantics in the analysis and assigned + 1 to satisfied consumers and -1 to dissatisfied consumers. To ensure comparability and consistency with other variables in our study, we further processed the consumer satisfaction variable, normalised it with log values and standardised it to 10-scale.

With over 12,000 inputs from real customers, we have a substantial sample that represents a wide range of consumer experiences and opinions in the narratives. This large-scale dataset enhances the generalisability and robustness of our findings compared to studies with smaller samples, case studies, or experimental designs. In this sense, our study uses a systematic approach to measure consumer satisfaction towards DiDi in a real-life setting. We have generated a valid and reliable measure of consumer satisfaction by utilising Baidu’s system to gather and integrate comments from various online media outlets, conducting satisfaction analysis, and normalising and standardising the data. The large sample size further strengthens the credibility and applicability of our findings in understanding consumer perceptions and experiences with the DiDi service.

3.1.2 Independent variables

Concrete-abstract narrative

Concrete-abstract narratives refer to how information or stories are narrated in varying degrees of concreteness or abstractness. A concrete narrative tends to be detailed, specific and contextualised in time, situation, social interaction, and processes. Conversely, the abstract narrative is more general, overarching, and conceptual, emphasising broader themes, ideas, or principles. Measurement of concrete-abstract narratives typically involves assessing the level of concreteness or abstractness in the content or presentation of information, including the quantity of information, such as the size of the text in the narrative (Malik 2023b). The integration of three distinct elements is pivotal to our fundamental construct of narrative concreteness versus abstractness. This integration aids in distinguishing the independent variable from the dependent variable, both of which are derived from the same textual source.

The independent variable is determined by the size of the text, which hinges on the latent attributes of the texts in connection with the concrete-abstract spectrum. This determination aims to evaluate their valence, inferred through the positive or negative behaviour of the consumer as analysed by Azur’s sentiment analysis, which the Microsoft based system analysis in the following steps.

Firstly, linguistic analysis involves examining the language used in the narrative, and concrete narratives contain specific details, vivid descriptions, and tangible examples. Abstract narratives, on the other hand, tend to use more general terms, broader concepts, and higher-level abstractions. Secondly, content analysis that involves systematically categorising and coding the content of narratives based on their level of concreteness or abstractness describes the narrative. Thirdly, another approach is the perceptual ratings of the individuals who consume or evaluate the narratives. Participants can be asked to rate the narratives on a scale that represents the degree of concreteness or abstractness. These ratings can be collected through surveys, experiments or online sources. Our narratives represent parts of these three aspects.

Media reputation ranking

Social media ranking refers to the process of determining the status and position of the media among the industry peers—the social media platforms. It involves algorithms or systems that prioritise and display content based on relevance, popularity, engagement, or user preferences. Social media ranking algorithms aim to present users with content that is relevant or interesting to them, often based on their browsing history, interactions, and the platform’s objectives. Measurement of social media ranking on a scale involves evaluating the position or prominence of content within the ranking algorithm. However, it’s important to note that social media platforms’ specific measurement details and algorithms are proprietary and not publicly disclosed.

Researchers and practitioners can adopt alternative measurement approaches to gain insights into social media ranking through visibility, engagement, and comparison. Visibility metrics enable researchers to examine and understand content’s relative prominence within the social media platform. This can include the number of impressions or views a post receives, the reach or audience size the content reaches, or the frequency and duration of its appearance in users’ feeds. Engagement metrics can indicate how users interact with the content. This can include metrics such as likes, shares, comments, or click-through rates. Higher-levels of engagement often suggest that the content has gained more visibility and reached a larger audience within the ranking algorithm. Lastly, comparative analysis enables us to understand the relative position of different content or accounts within the social media ranking. By comparing the performance and visibility of specific posts, accounts, or hashtags, researchers can gain insights into the relative impact of social media ranking on the visibility and reach of different content.

Narrative and media ranking interaction

The interaction variable, representing the combined influence of narrative characteristics and social media ranking on a specific outcome or response, encapsulates the interplay between the narrative’s features (like concreteness or abstractness) and the social media ranking of the narrative. This interaction is pivotal in shaping consumer perceptions, behaviours, or other pertinent outcomes. The emergent variable is continuous, follows a log distribution, and is standardised.

3.1.3 Control variables

Appendix 1 defines variables and lists their measurements. Two variables and their interactions are the main predictors (narrative, media ranking and interaction), and the remaining variables are control variables, most of which are binary types.

3.1.4 Modelling and analysis

We used a multilevel mixed effect method: level one is the narrative, and level 2 is the digital platforms. The distinction between these levels was important due to the involvement of various companies in cyberspace. At level 1, we focused on narratives to gain insights into individual consumers’ unique perspectives and experiences. Understanding these factors was crucial in examining how they influenced consumer feedback on the product. By analysing the feedback narrative at this level, we could explore the consumer’s attitudes, perceptions, and preferences related to the product. Using a mixed effect model can capture between effects (variations between observations related to narratives). In other words, each narrative is an observation representing an individual level, which is at the first level in the mixed effect method in cross-sectional data. This multilevel mode accounts for the unobserved individual consumer differences.

Level 2 delineates the digital platform’s identity, distinguishing between platforms and capturing media outlet types and social rankings. Media identity varies by type (digital, social, business, entertainment, news) and location, organised by Azure of Microsoft’s analytical systems. This level’s inclusion aims to understand and control the impact of media diversity on the relationship between concrete narratives and consumer response. By accounting for media reputation and the fixed effects of media identities, the analysis provides a nuanced understanding of how these factors, along with the concrete narrative and media rank, interact in a multilevel mixed model to predict consumer satisfaction.

  • Level 1 (Observation Level):

    $$Yij=\beta 0j+\beta 1jXij+\epsilon ij$$

  • Level 2 (Media Group-Level):

    $$\begin{array}{c}\beta 0j=\gamma 00+\gamma 01Wj+u0j\\ \beta 1j=\gamma 10+\gamma 11Wj+u1j\end{array}$$

Yij is the dependent variable for individual i in group j.

β0j and β1j are the intercept and slope for group j, respectively.

Xij is the independent variable for individual i in group j.

ϵij is the error term for individual i in group j.

Wj represents group-level covariates (if any).

γ00, γ01, γ10, and γ11 are fixed effects at Level 2, representing intercept and slope for the entire sample.

0u0j and u1j are random effects at Level 2, representing the deviation of group j from the overall intercept and slope, respectively.

4 Results

4.1 Graphical results

Figure 2 shows a two-way linear correlation between two independent variables (concrete narratives and media ranking) and the dependent variable (consumer satisfaction). The X-axis shows the predictors, and the Y-axis shows consumer satisfaction. The increase in concrete narrative predicts a decrease in consumer satisfaction, and so does the increase in media ranking. The third graph shows linear correlations of both predictors in one graph, and the fourth graph includes nonlinear correlations. The concrete-abstract narrative effect is more nonlinear than the media ranking effect.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Two-way linear correlations with consumer satisfaction. X-axis: concrete narrative and media rank. Y-axis: consumer satisfactions. Linear and nonlinear correlations

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Figure 3 tests the correlation between concrete narrative on the Y-axis and media ranking on the X-axis. The upward slope indicates that an increase in media ranking predicts an increase in concrete narratives. Like the previous table, these two-way correlations do not account for other variables.

Fig. 3
figure 3

Linear correlation between concrete narrative and media ranking. X-axis: Media ranking. Y-axis: consumer satisfactions. Linear correlations

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Figure 4 shows media ranking on the X-axis and narrative on the Y-axis in a nonlinear correlation with a U-shape curve. As the media rank increases, the narrative becomes abstract, changing after an inflexion point in the middle. Further increase on the X-axis reveals an increase in the effects of the concrete narrative.

Fig. 4
figure 4

Nonlinear correlation between concrete narrative and media ranking. X-axis: Media ranking. Y-axis: consumer satisfactions. Nonlinear correlations

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Figure 5 The analysis examines the marginal effects of the interaction between concrete narrative and media rank on consumer satisfaction. When the media rank is at 1, it shows no significant impact on the influence of a concrete narrative. Conversely, a media rank at 10, coupled with a concrete narrative score of 10, demonstrates an increase in consumer satisfaction. This suggests that a high media rank, when aligned with concrete narratives, tends to predict a positive correlation with consumer satisfaction. The observable patterns in these interaction effects provide a preliminary visual insight, paving the way for more detailed statistical analysis to validate these observations

Fig. 5
figure 5

Interaction effect. X-axis: Concreate narratives; media ranking. Y-axis: consumer satisfactions

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4.2 Statistical results

Table 1 shows a summary of the variables. The dependent variable is “Consumer satisfaction”, which has a mean of 5.42, a standard deviation of 4.26, a minimum value of 0.09, and a maximum value of 10 on the scale. The independent variables are the concrete-abstract spectrum and social media ranking. The standardised variables are measured on a 10-scale, and others are dummies.

Table 1 Summary statistics
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Table 2 displays a correlation matrix which reveals the strength and direction of the relationships between variables. One important purpose of this matrix is to detect multicollinearity, which arises when two or more independent variables in a regression model are highly correlated. Multicollinearity can cause problems such as unstable estimates of regression coefficients, imprecise parameter estimates, and difficulties in interpreting the model. The correlation matrix indicates that some variables (years) exhibit high correlations. To identify multicollinearity, a common approach is to compute the variance inflation factor (VIF) for each independent variable in the model. The VIF measures how much the variance of a regression coefficient is increased due to collinearity with other independent variables. A VIF value of 1 indicates no multicollinearity, while a value above 5 or 10 indicates strong multicollinearity. In this study, the variable for the year 2018 exhibited a high correlation and was thus removed from the statistical analysis. Appendix 2 contains the VIF values.

Table 2 Inter-variable correlation
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Table 3 shows the direct effects of concrete narratives and media ranking on consumer satisfaction with the services of DiDi company. The concrete narrative (low-level construal) and media ranking (high-level construal) positively predict the consumer’s satisfaction.

Table 3 Direct effects of the concrete narratives and media ranking
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Table 4 shows the interaction effect of concrete narrative and media ranking. The interaction coefficient is positive and significant (p < 0.01), suggesting that more concrete (low-level construal) and media ranking (high construal level) produce positive effects on consumer satisfaction. It also means that the concrete-concrete or abstract-abstract construal levels negatively predict consumer satisfaction. Moreover, the net effects of both concrete narrative and media ranking become insignificant (p > 0.05); therefore, the moderating effect is robust in this context.

Table 4 Interaction effects of narrative and media ranking
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Appendix 3 shows a supplementary analysis of the DiDi company and driver (person) when the consumer alludes to the firm versus the person. In the process, we discovered that the net effects of the company are positive and significant, while the net effects of the driver are negative and significant. This discovery points to some potential avenues for further analysis in the future research.

5 Discussion

The present study combines the concreteness of the narratives of the consumers in online posting about the post-purchased service and the media ranking that hosted the consumer’s online posting. Prior studies have explored narratives for the effectiveness of concrete versus abstract disciplines and consumer satisfaction in the education sector (Malik 2023b). Others have explored media ranking on the financial analysts’ influence on the market response (Yu et al. 2021). None has integrated the media moderator between the narrative and consumer satisfaction. The current study combines narrative and media ranking to predict consumer satisfaction for broad theoretical and policy contributions. The dependent variable in the analysis is consumer satisfaction, which is measured through the analysis of consumers’ online postings. The independent variables are the concrete narrative of the consumer in the online posting about the service they purchased and the media ranking on which the online posting was made. The interaction between the concrete narrative and media ranking refers to the combined effect of these two variables on consumer satisfaction. The interaction has a positive effect on consumer satisfaction, implying moderation effects of media ranking on the concrete narrative towards consumer satisfaction with and explanation of these relationships.

Concrete narratives often include specific details about the product or service, the benefits or problems encountered, and overall impressions. The media ranking refers to the platform or website on which the online posting was made. Different platforms have varying levels of credibility, influence, and reach. Higher-ranked or reputable platforms are likely to attract a larger audience and carry more weight in terms of influencing consumer perceptions (Fiedler 2007). Online postings on platforms with a higher media ranking can reach a wider audience and impact consumer opinions. Similar to the online posting and satisfaction of students about their science disciplines based on the ranking of universities (Malik et al. 2023), the ranking of the media for consumer postings affect the consumer satisfaction.

Regarding the interaction between concrete narrative and media ranking, the influence of the concrete narrative (posting) is combined with the reach and credibility of a high-ranking media platform, it can enhance the effect on consumer satisfaction (Humphreys et al. 2021; Pizzi et al. 2015; Sinha and Lu 2019; Yudkin et al. 2020). The concrete narrative provides detailed information and personal experiences, while the media ranking amplifies the impact of that narrative by reaching a larger audience and carrying more weight in terms of credibility (Barreto and Patient 2013; Lermer et al. 2015; Sinha and Lu 2019; Steinbach et al. 2019; Stillman et al. 2018). This interaction increases the visibility and perceived value of positive experiences, leading to higher consumer satisfaction (Humphreys et al. 2021; Sinha and Lu 2019; Yudkin et al. 2020).

CLT can provide further insight into the interaction between the concrete narrative, media ranking, and consumer satisfaction in the context of online postings, as it can deal with different levels of the abstract (mentally construed or interpreted) information at different levels of abstraction (Liberman et al. 2007; Steinhart et al. 2013; Trope and Liberman 2010; Wiesenfeld et al. 2017). In this case, the concrete narrative provided by consumers in their online postings represents a lower-level construal (Liberman et al. 2007; Steinhart et al. 2013). It includes specific details and personal experiences related to the service they purchased. When consumers share such concrete narratives, they provide vivid and tangible information that is easy to grasp and process (Liberman et al. 2007). On the other hand, the media ranking of the platform where the online posting is made represents a higher-level construal. It signifies the overall reputation, influence, and credibility of the platform (Trope et al. 2007; Wiesenfeld et al. 2017). High-ranking media platforms are perceived as more authoritative and trustworthy, influencing how consumers interpret the information presented (Trope and Liberman 2010). When consumers come across positive concrete narratives on a highly ranked platform, they are more likely to attribute greater importance and reliability to those narratives (Duan et al. 2022; Onay et al. 2013; Ram et al. 2022; Wakslak et al. 2006; Zheng et al. 2013).

CLT can subtly explain the interaction between the concrete narrative and media ranking. CLT suggests that individuals perceive psychologically close information as more concrete and detailed (Liberman et al. 2007). In this case, when consumers provide a concrete narrative about their experience with a service, it reduces the psychic distance between the consumer and the potential buyer (Nakashima et al. 2017). The vivid and tangible details shared in the narrative make the information feel psychologically closer, leading to a stronger impact on consumer satisfaction (Nakashima et al. 2017). CLT also posits that individuals perceive information from high-level construals as more abstract, less detailed, and more credible (Trope and Liberman 2010). The high media ranking of a platform acts as a higher-level construal, signalling greater credibility and influence (Duan et al. 2022; Onay et al. 2013; Ram et al. 2022; Wakslak et al. 2006; Zheng et al. 2013). When consumers encounter a positive concrete narrative on a highly ranked platform, it combines the benefits of both lower-level (concrete narrative) and higher-level (media ranking) construal. The platform’s perceived credibility enhances the perceived reliability and value of the concrete narrative, further influencing consumer satisfaction (Humphreys et al. 2021; Pizzi et al. 2015; Sinha and Lu 2019; Yudkin et al. 2020).

The findings of our study are consistent with CLT and related studies based on abstract—concrete narrative (Lermer et al. 2015; Mount et al. 2021; Vilches-Montero and Spence 2015) and media ranking (Cloarec et al. 2022; Humphreys et al. 2021). CLT explains that distance implies positive values because of the abstractness of the construal level (Fessel 2011; Ledgerwood et al. 2010; Vanderstukken et al. 2019). Although previous studies have explored consumer satisfaction based on the distance between product experience and evaluation, this did not consider media ranking in the equation. For example, a field study analysing over 4,000 online hotel reviews found that consumers evaluated hotels positively when abstract language (psychic distance) was used (Huang et al. 2016). Another study shows that people think about the long-term benefits in an abstract manner, and they are more focused on the immediate costs when thinking about a concrete manner (Nakashima et al. 2017). This way, our study strongly contributes to CLT in direct and indirect analysis (Huang et al. 2016; Nakashima et al. 2017).

Furthermore, our study contributes to the digital product and service sectors field, particularly in relation to new technologies such as sharing economies, like the hailing services of DiDi (Eckhardt et al. 2019). These new technologies of sharing services have interdisciplinary and inter-industrial boundaries, encompassing various key characteristics, institutional foundations, processes, and values (Eckhardt et al. 2019). However, their implications for marketing require further research for a better understanding. Moreover, our study has important policy implications. Policymakers can focus on promoting platforms and websites with higher media rankings that significantly influence consumer perceptions (Huang et al. 2016). This can be done through partnerships, collaborations, or initiatives that encourage reputable platforms to prioritise authentic and reliable consumer narratives. By doing so, consumers can access detailed and trustworthy information about products and services, leading to more informed purchasing decisions and potentially higher satisfaction.

Secondly, policymakers can establish guidelines and regulations to ensure the credibility and quality of online platforms where consumer postings are made. This can include measures to prevent the spread of fake or manipulated reviews, improve transparency regarding the source of online postings, and promote accountability for platforms that host consumer narratives. Fourthly, policymakers can encourage industry collaboration and self-regulation initiatives within the online service sector. This can involve bringing together platforms, service providers, and relevant stakeholders to establish ethical guidelines and best practices for consumer narratives and media ranking. Lastly, policymakers should support further research and monitoring in the field of digital product and service sectors, especially in relation to emerging technologies and sharing economies (Eckhardt et al. 2019). This research can provide valuable insights into consumer behaviour, the impact of narratives and media ranking, and the evolving dynamics of online platforms.

This study has several limitations. Firstly, the study focuses on online postings about post-purchased services, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to other contexts or product types. Different industries or platforms may yield different results. Secondly, the study relies on analysing consumer online postings, which may introduce sampling bias. Only consumers who choose to post online are included, potentially overlooking the opinions of those who do not participate in online discussions. Thirdly, consumer satisfaction is measured through the analysis of online postings, which may be subjective and vary in terms of intensity and scope. Different individuals may have varying standards and expectations, making it challenging to quantify satisfaction levels precisely. Fourthly, the study examines the relationship between concrete narratives, media ranking, and consumer satisfaction, but it cannot establish causality due to its observational nature. Other unmeasured factors may influence both narratives and satisfaction. Fifthly, the study focuses solely on the interaction between concrete narratives and media ranking, excluding consumer demographics. Lastly, the study does not account for temporal factors, such as the time elapsed since the purchase or the posting of online reviews. Consumer satisfaction and opinions may evolve, and capturing these dynamics could provide a more comprehensive understanding.