Abstract
This essay presents a theoretical model for the heretofore hidden processes associated with mechanisms of change in adventurous outdoor learning. After summarizing the few researchers who have investigated the components and pathways that bring participant change, four strands of influence are discussed: exercise activity, nature immersion, overcoming perceived risks, and resolving group conflicts. These four strands are traced through a seven-step sequence, where important similarities and differences are highlighted. An emphasis is placed on the interwoven transfer of learning with attention paid to ecohealth outcomes. Implications for practitioners are shared and future research directions are recommended.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
Not applicable.
References
Baird, J., Hutson, G., & Plummer, R. (2020). Examining links between connections to nature and intentions for pro-environmental behavior as outcomes of NOLS. Journal of Outdoor Recreation Education and Leadership, 12(4). https://doi.org/10.18666/JOREL-2020-V12-I4-9992
Baldwin, C., Persing, J., & Magnuson, D. (2004). The role of theory, research, and evaluation in adventure education. Journal of Experiential Education, 26(3), 167–183. https://doi.org/10.1177/105382590402600307
Bensley, R. J. (1991). Defining spiritual health: A review of the literature. Journal of Health Education, 22(5), 287–290.
Brown, M., & Beames, S. (2017). Adventure education: Redux. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 17(4), 294–306.
Bunge, M. (1963). A general black box theory. Philosophy of Science, 30(4), 346–358.
Cason, D., & Gillis, H. L. (1994). A meta-analysis of outdoor adventure programming with adolescents. Journal of Experiential Education, 17(1), 40–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/105382599401700109
Charron, D. F. (2012). Ecohealth research in practice. Springer
Clough, P., Houge Mackenzie, S., Mallabon, L., & Brymer, E. (2016). Adventurous physical activity environments: A mainstream intervention for mental health. Sports Medicine, 46(7), 963–968.
Dickson, T. J., Gray, T., & Mann, K. (2008). Australian outdoor adventure activity benefits catalogue. University of Canberra
Draper, N., & Hodgson, C. (2008). Adventure Sport Physiology. Wiley
Ducarme, F., & Couvet, D. (2020). What does ‘nature’ mean? Palgrave Communications, 6, 14. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-020-0390-y
Elliot, A. J., Dweck, C. S., & Yeager, D. S. (Eds.). (2018). Handbook of competence and motivation. 2nd Edition: Theory and Application. Guilford Publications
Ewert, A. W. (1983). Outdoor adventure and self-concept: A research analysis. Center of Leisure Studies, University of Oregon
Fernee, C. R., Gabrielsen, L. E., Andersen, A. J., & Mesel, T. (2017). Unpacking the black box of wilderness therapy: A realist synthesis. Qualitative Health Research, 27, 114–129. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732316655776
Fernee, C. R., Mesel, T., Andersen, A. J., & Gabrielsen, L. E. (2019). Therapy the natural way: A realist exploration of the wilderness therapy treatment process in adolescent mental health care in Norway. Qualitative Health Research, 29(9), 1358–1377. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732318816301
Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford University Press
Gass, M. (1985). Programming the transfer of learning in adventure education. Journal of Experiential Education, 10(3), 18–24.
Gass, M. A., Gillis, H. L., & Russell, K. C. (2020). Adventure therapy: Theory, Research, and practice. Routledge
Harter, S. (1978). Effectance motivation reconsidered: Toward a developmental model. Human Development, 21, 34–64. https://doi.org/10.1159/000271574
Hattie, J., Marsh, H. W., Neill, J. T., & Richards, G. E. (1997). Adventure education and outward bound: Out-of-class experiences that make a lasting difference. Review of Educational Research, 67(1), 43–87. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543067001043
Keniger, L. E., Gaston, K. J., Irvine, K. N., & Fuller, R. A. (2013). What are the benefits of interacting with nature? International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 10(3), 913–935. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph10030913
Klint, K. (1992). Competence motivation revisited: The influence of self-efficacy, attribution and risk taking. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Leadership, 9(4)
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning. Prentice Hall
Kolb, D. A. (2014). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of Learning and Development. Pearson Education
Magle-Haberek, N. A., Tucker, A. R., & Gass, M. A. (2012). Effects of program differences with wilderness therapy and residential treatment center (RTC) programs. Residential Treatment for Children & Youth, 29, 202–218. https://doi.org/10.1080/0886571X.2012.697433
Masterton, W., Carver, H., Parkes, T., & Park, K. (2020). Greenspace interventions for mental health in clinical and non-clinical populations: What works, for whom, and in what circumstances? Health & Place, 64, 102338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2020.102338
Mouse, A. (2023). Competence Effectance. Outdoor Learning in Canada. Open resource textbooks. http://olic.ca
Mygind, L., Kjeldsted, E., Hartmeyer, R. D., Mygind, E., Bølling, M., & Bentsen, P. (2019). Immersive nature-experiences as health promotion interventions for healthy, vulnerable, and sick populations? A systematic review and appraisal of controlled studies. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 943
Priest, S. (2023). Six elements of adventure therapy: A step toward building the “Black Box” process of adventure. Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 15, 12–33.
Priest, S., & Gass, M. (2018). Effective Leadership in adventure programming (3rd ed.). Human Kinetics
Priest, S., Gass, M. A., & Gillis, H. L. (2022). Essential elements of Facilitation (3rd ed.). Association for Experiential Education
Pruitt, D., Kim, H.S. & Rubin, J. (2004). Social conflict: Escalation, stalemate and settlement. Random House
Ritchie, S., D’Angelo, J., & Priest, S. (2022). How to promote ecohealth. Clearing House Information Project, Association for Experiential Education. AEE CHIP-7
Russell, K. C., & Farnum, J. (2004). A concurrent model of the wilderness therapy process. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 4(1), 39–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/14729670485200411
Schön, D. A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner: Toward a new design for teaching and learning in the professions. Jossey-Bass
Shellman, A. (2011). Looking into the Black Box. Journal of Experiential Education, 33(4), 402–405. https://doi.org/10.1177/105382591003300416
Soper, K. (1995). What is nature?: Culture politics and the non-human. Wiley
Summers, C. L. M. (1963). Adventure activities in Physical Education. Blackwell
Sutherland, S., & Legge, M. (2016). The possibilities of “doing” outdoor and/or adventure education in physical education/teacher education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 35(4), 299–312. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.2016-0161
Sutherland, S., & Stuhr, P. T. (2014). Reactions to implementing adventure-based learning in physical education. Sport Education and Society, 19(4), 489–506. https://doi.org/10.1080/13573322.2012.688807
Terelak, J. F. (2019). Eustress and Distress: Reactivation. Peter Lang
Walsh, V., & Golins, G. (1976). The exploration of the Outward bound process. Outward Bound School
White, R. (1959). Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence. Psychological Review, 66, 297–333. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0040934
Williams, R. (2013). Woven into the fabric of experience: Residential adventure education and complexity. Journal of Adventure Education & Outdoor Learning, 13(2), 107–124.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The author declares no conflicts of interest.
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Priest, S. Mechanisms of change for adventure: four pathways through the “black box” process. Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42322-023-00126-4
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42322-023-00126-4