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Li Alloys in All Solid-State Lithium Batteries: A Review of Fundamentals and Applications

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Abstract

All solid-state lithium batteries (ASSLBs) overcome the safety concerns associated with traditional lithium-ion batteries and ensure the safe utilization of high-energy-density electrodes, particularly Li metal anodes with ultrahigh specific capacities. However, the practical implementation of ASSLBs is limited by the instability of the interface between the anode and solid-state electrolyte (SSE). To mitigate this, considerable research has been dedicated to achieving enhanced stability at the anode/SSE interface. Among the current strategies for enhancing interface performance, the concept of Li-alloy materials is extensively used and well functionalized in various scenarios, including Li alloys as anodes, Li-alloy interlayers and Li alloys in the anode. Despite the notable achievements of Li-alloy materials in ASSLBs, the functionality, practicality and working mechanism of Li-alloys have not been fully elucidated. This review commences by providing an exhaustive and in-depth examination of the fundamental kinetics, thermodynamics, and mechanics, highlighting Li-alloy materials. Subsequently, through a systematic interconnection of material properties and their practical applications, we undertake a comprehensive analysis of the operative principles governing Li alloys. This analytical approach allows a thorough evaluation of the viability and utility of Li alloys within the context of ASSLBs. Finally, this review concludes by succinctly summarizing the future prospects and inherent potential of Li-alloy materials for further advancing the field of ASSLBs.

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Fig. 1
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Copyright © 2022, American Chemical Society. d Schematic illustration of the interfacial Li transport process. e Evolutions of the diffusion coefficient and charge transfer impedance as a function of the Li content in LixIn and the GITT profile. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [71]. Copyright © 2021, AAAS

Fig. 6

Copyright © 2021, AAAS. c Voltage and current profiles of the Li-Zn|LPSC|Li-Zn cell at step-increased current densities. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [41]. Copyright © 2022, The Royal Society of Chemistry. d Typical voltage profile of a symmetric Li|LPSC|Li cell. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [79]. Copyright © 2022, Nature Publishing Group

Fig. 7

Copyright © 2012, Nature Publishing Group. b Comparison of Si and Ge during lithiation. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [95]. Copyright © 2013, American Chemical Society. c Gibbs free energy diagram of Li-Al alloys. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [89]. Copyright © 2020, Nature Publishing Group

Fig. 8

Copyright © 2021, Elsevier

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Copyright © 2022, Wiley-VCH. c AIMD simulation on the In/Li6PS5Cl interface. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [78]. Copyright © 2021, Nature Publishing Group

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Copyright © 2021, Nature Publishing Group

Fig. 12

Copyright © 2020, Nature Publishing Group

Fig. 13

Copyright © 2012, American Chemical Society. b Li trapped in the Si anode during delithiation. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [176]. Copyright © 2019, AAAS. Calculated electrochemical reaction energy between Si and c 75Li2S-25P2S5 and d 70(0.75Li2S-0.25P2S5)-60LiI electrolytes, confirming the side reactions between the Li-Si anode and the sulfide electrolytes. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [178]. Copyright © 2023, The Royal Society of Chemistry

Fig. 14

Copyright © 2022, Wiley-VCH. b Structure and c advantages of bipolar-stacked all-solid-state batteries. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [191]. Copyright © 2022, Wiley-VCH

Fig. 15

Copyright © 2007, Wiley-VCH. b Schematic illustration of the contact between col-Si and SSEs and the 1D breathing behavior of the col-Si anode during lithiation. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [182]. Copyright © 2020, Wiley-VCH. c The 99.9% μSi anode and its lithiation process in an all-solid-state full battery. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [114]. Copyright © 2021, AAAS. d Mechanism of the hard carbon-stabilized LiSi anode. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [116]. Copyright © 2023, Nature Publishing Group

Fig. 16

Copyright © 2020, Wiley-VCH. b Gradient LiF-LiAl-Li anode and its merits. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [213]. Copyright © 2022, The Royal Society of Chemistry. c Evolution of the Li-Hg alloy interlayer during cycling. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [215]. Copyright © 2020, Wiley-VCH

Fig. 17

Copyright © 2021, American Chemical Society. b Cross-sectional SEM images of the LPSCl/Ag-Li interfaces in the full cell after the first cycle. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [56]. Copyright © 2021, Wiley-VCH. c Distribution of the Li+ flux simulated by the finite element method. d Schematic diagram of the working mechanism of the Li-Sn interface derived from in situ reactions between Li and the gc-Li3.2P0.8Sn0.2S4 electrolyte. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [225]. Copyright © 2021, Wiley-VCH

Fig. 18

Copyright © 2020, Wiley-VCH. b Li stripping/plating behavior in the cell with the garnet-type SSE and the Li-Mg alloy anode. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [112]. Copyright © 2018, Wiley-VCH. c Effective Li diffusion coefficient of Li and Li-Mg alloys. The orange, gray and blue lines correspond to Li, Li0.95Mg0.5 and Li0.9Mg0.1, respectively. d Simulated Li utilization of the Li0.9Mg0.1 electrode as a function of current density at different temperatures. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [55]. Copyright © 2019, Wiley-VCH

Fig. 19

Copyright © 2017, Wiley-VCH. b Preparation process of the LiSnC electrode. Comparison of the surface morphology of the c LiSnC electrode and d bare Li electrode after Li stripping. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [250]. Copyright © 2023, Elsevier

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 51971201, U20A20126, 52073253, and 52103350). Y. Zhong acknowledges the support by the Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China (No. LY23E020009). X.L. Wang acknowledges the support by Development Program of Zhejiang Province (No. 2022C01071).

Funding

National Natural Science Foundation of China, 51971201, Jiangping Tu; U20A20126, Jiangping Tu; 52103350, Yu Zhong; 52073253, Xiuli Wang. Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China, LY23E020009, Yu Zhong. Development Program of Zhejiang Province, 2022C01071, Xiuli Wang.

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  1. Jingru Li and Han Su have contributed equally to this work.

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  1. State Key Laboratory of Silicon and Advanced Semiconductor Materials, Key Laboratory of Advanced Materials and Applications for Batteries of Zhejiang Province, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, Zhejiang, China

    Jingru Li, Han Su, Yu Liu, Yu Zhong, Xiuli Wang & Jiangping Tu

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Li, J., Su, H., Liu, Y. et al. Li Alloys in All Solid-State Lithium Batteries: A Review of Fundamentals and Applications. Electrochem. Energy Rev. 7, 18 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41918-024-00221-0

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