Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Splitting in Schizophrenia: Controversies and Links Between Neuroscience and Psychodynamic Theory

  • Ideas and Perpectives
  • Published:
Activitas Nervosa Superior

Abstract

The term splitting is defined as a process of mental division of complex structures related to cognitive and affective conflicting experiences. Recent findings indicate that mental splitting in schizophrenia might be represented by disrupted organization of neural information transmission. This disturbed neural information processing likely may determine deficits in mental disorganization described in neuroscientific theories of disturbed connectivity, corollary discharges and dynamic complexity. In this context, a purpose of this article is to review basic neuroscience theories of schizophrenia that complementarily reflect mind-brain information connectivity. These underlying disruptions of neural integrity might represent neural correlates of the splitting in schizophrenia that provide novel descriptions of mind-brain relationships.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Allen, H. A., Liddle, P. F., & Frith, C. D. (1993). Negative features, retrieval processes, and verbal fluency in schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 769–775.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Andreasen, N. C. (1997). Linking mind and brain in the study of mental illnesses: a project for a scientific psychopathology. Science, 275, 586–593.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andreasen, N. C., Paradiso, S., & O’Leary, D. S. (1998). “Cognitive dysmetria” as an integrative theory of schizophrenia: a dysfunction in cortical-subcortical-cerebellar circuitry? Schizophrenia Bulletin, 24, 203–218.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anzieu, D. (1974). A discussion of the paper by Gisela Pankow on “the body image in psychosis”. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 55, 415–416.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anzieu, D. (1993). Autistic phenomena and the skin ego. Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 13, 42–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Atmanspacher, H., & Fach, W. (2005). Acategoriality as mental instability. Journal of Mind and Behavior, 26, 181–205.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baars, B. J. (1988). A cognitive theory of consciousness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baars, B. J. (2002). The conscious access hypothesis: origins and recent evidence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6, 47–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Balduzzi, D., & Tononi, G. (2008). Integrated information in discrete dynamical systems: motivation and theoretical framework. PLoS Computational Biology, 4, e1000091.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bateman, A. W., & Fonagy, P. (2006). Mentalization-based treatment for borderline personality disorder: a practical guide. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Benedetti, G., & Peciccia, M. (1998). The ego structure and the self-identity of the schizophrenic human and the task of psychoanalysis. International Forum of Psychoanalysis, 7, 169–174.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beutel, M. E., Dietrich, S., Stark, R., Brendel, G., & Silbersweig, D. (2004). Pursuit of the emerging dialogue between psychoanalysis and neuroscience: clinical and research perspectives. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 85, 1493–1496.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bhattacharya, J., & Petsche, H. (2002). Shadows of artistry: cortical synchrony during perception and imagery of visual art. Cognitive Brain Research, 13, 179–186.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bion, W. R. (1957). Differentiation of the psychotic from the non-psychotic personalities. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 38, 266–275.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bion, W. R. (1959). Attacks on linking. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 40, 308–315.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blake, R., Yu, K., Lokey, M., & Norman, H. (1998). Binocular rivalry and motion perception. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 10, 46–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blass, R. B., & Carmeli, Z. (2007). The case against neuropsychoanalysis: On fallacies underlying psychoanalysis’ latest scientific trend and its negative impact on psychoanalytic discourse. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 88, 19–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blatt, S. J., & Auerbach, J. S. (2001). Mental representation, severe psychopathology, and the therapeutic process. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 49, 113–159.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bleger, J. (1974). Schizophrenia, autisms, and symbiosis. Contemporary Psychoanalysis, 10, 19–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bleuler, E. (1911/1950). Dementia praecox or the group of schizophrenias. J. Zinkin (Trans.). New York: International Universities Press.

  • Bleuler, E. (1913/1951). Autistic thinking. In D. Rapaport (Ed.), Organization and pathology of thought, selected sources (pp. 399–437). New York: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bleuler, E. (1918/1906). Consciousness and association. In C. G. Jung (Ed.), M. D. Eder (Trans.), Studies in word association: experiments in the diagnosis of psychopathological conditions carried out at the psychiatric clinic of the University of Zurich (pp. 266–296). New York: Moffat, Yard and Company.

  • Bleuler, E. (1924). Textbook of psychiatry, A. A. Brill (Trans.). New York: The Macmillan Company.

  • Bob, P. (2008). Pain, dissociation and subliminal self-representations. Consciousness and Cognition, 17, 355–369.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bob, P. (2011). Brain, mind and consciousness: advances in neuroscience research. New York, NY: Springer.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Bob, P. (2012). Consciousness, schizophrenia and complexity. Cognitive Systems Research, 13, 87–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bob, P. (2015). The brain and conscious Unity: Freud’s omega. New York: Springer.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Bob, P., & Mashour, G. A. (2011). Schizophrenia, dissociation, and consciousness. Consciousness and Cognition, 20, 1042–1049.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bob, P., & Svetlak, M. (2011). Dissociative states and neural complexity. Brain and Cognition, 75, 188–195.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bob, P., Palus, M., Susta, M., & Glaslova, K. (2008). EEG phase synchronization in patients with paranoid schizophrenia. Neuroscience Letters, 447, 73–77.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bob, P., Susta, M., Chladek, J., Glaslova, K., & Palus, M. (2009). Chaos in schizophrenia associations, reality or metaphor? International Journal of Psychophysiology, 73, 179–185.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bob, P., Susta, M., Glaslova, K., & Boutros, N. N. (2010). Dissociative symptoms and interregional EEG cross-correlations in paranoid schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research, 177, 37–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bowden, E. M., Jung-Beeman, M., Fleck, J., & Kounios, J. (2005). New approaches to demystifying insight. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9, 322–328.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Breakspear, M. (2006). The nonlinear theory of schizophrenia. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 40, 20–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bremner, J. D., Elzinga, B., Schmahl, C., & Vermetten, E. (2007). Structural and functional plasticity of the human brain in posttraumatic stress disorder. Progress in Brain Research, 167, 171–186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brent, B. (2009). Mentalization based psychodynamic psychotherapy for psychosis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65, 803–814.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Breuer, J. (1893). Theoretical from studies on hysteria. Standard Edition 2:183–251.

  • Breuer, J., & Freud, S. (1895). Studies in hysteria. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brillouin, L. (1956). Science and information theory. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Briquet, P. (1859). Traité clinique et therapeutique de l’hystérie. Paris: JB Baillière.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bromberg, P. M. (1995). Psychoanalysis, dissociation, and personality organization reflections on Peter Goldberg’s essay. Psychoanalytic Dialogues, 5, 511–526.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bromberg, P. M. (2003). On being one’s dream: some reflections on Robert Bosnak’s “embodied imagination”. Contemporary Psychoanalysis, 39, 697–710.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bromberg, P. M. (2009). Multiple self-states, the relational mind, and dissociation: a psychoanalytic perspective. In P. F. Delland & J. A. O’Neil (Eds.), Dissociation and the dissociative disorders. DSM-V and beyond (pp. 637–652). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brook, J. A. (1992). Freud and splitting. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 19, 335–350.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, B. G. (1984). Towards a theory of multiple personality and other dissociative phenomena. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 7, 171–193.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bunge, S. A., Ochsner, K. N., Reskond, J. E., Dover, G. H., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2001). Prefrontal regions involved in keeping information in and out of mind. Brain, 124, 2074–2086.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burnham, D. L. (1969). Schizophrenia and object relations. In D. L. Burnhan, A. I. Gladstone, & R. W. Gibson (Eds.), Schizophrenia and the need-fear dilemma (pp. 15–41). New-York: International Universities Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bychowski, G. (1956). The ego and the introjects. Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 25, 11–36.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Caparrós, N. (1999). Splitting and disavowal in group psychotherapy of psychosis. In V. L. Schermer & M. Pines (Eds.), Group psychotherapy of the psychoses (pp. 83–96). London and Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carhart-Harris, R. L., & Friston, K. J. (2010). The default-mode, ego-functions and free-energy: a neurobiological account of Freudian ideas. Brain, 133, 1265–1283.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Chambers, C. D., Garavan, H., & Bellgrove, M. A. (2009). Insights into the neural basis of response inhibition from cognitive and clinical neuroscience. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 33, 631–646.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chiesa, A., & Serretti, A. (2010). A systematic review of neurobiological and clinical features of mindfulness meditations. Psychological Medicine, 40, 1239–1252.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ciompi, L. (1982). Affekt logik: Über die Struktur der Psyche und Ihre Entwicklung. Ein Beitrag zur Schizophrenieforschung. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crawford, H. J. (1994). Brain dynamics and hypnosis. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 42, 204–232.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, F., & Koch, C. (1995). Are we aware of neural activity in primary visual cortex? Nature, 375, 121–123.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Daskalakis, Z. J., Fitzgerald, P. B., & Christensen, B. K. (2007). The role of cortical inhibition in the pathophysiology and treatment of schizophrenia. Brain Research Reviews, 56, 427–442.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, R. J., Kabat-Zinn, J., Schumacher, J., Rosenkranz, M., Muller, D., Santorelli, S. F., & Sheridan, J. F. (2003). Alterations in brain and immune function produced by mindfulness meditation. Psychosomatic Medicine, 65, 564–570.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, A. V., Paulsen, J. S., Heaton, R. K., & Jeste, D. V. (1995). Assessment of the semantic network in chronic schizophrenia. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 1, 132.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Barros, J. A. (2012). Quantum-like model of behavioral response computation using neural oscillators. Biosystems, 110, 171–182.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Desimone, R., & Duncan, J. (1995). Neural mechanisms of selective visual attention. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 18, 193–222.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DeSisto, M., Harding, C. M., McCormick, R. V., Ashikaga, T., & Brooks, G. W. (1995). The Maine and Vermont three decade studies of serious mental illness. British Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 338–342.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diaz, M. T., & McCarthy, G. (2007). Unconscious word processing engages a distributed network of brain regions. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 19, 1768–1775.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diederen, K. M., Neggers, S. F., Daalman, K., Blom, J. D., Goekoop, R., Kahn, R. S., & Sommer, I. E. (2010). Deactivation of the parahippocampal gyrus preceding auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 427–435.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dietrich, A., & Kanso, R. (2010). A review of EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging studies of creativity and insight. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 822–848.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dougherty, M. K., Gu, H., Bizzell, J., Ramsey, S., Gerig, G., Perkins, D. O., & Belger, A. (2012). Differences in subcortical structures in young adolescents at familial risk for schizophrenia: a preliminary study. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 204, 68–74.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Edelson, M. (1986). The convergence of psychoanalysis and neuroscience:—illusion and reality. Contemporary Psychoanalysis, 22, 479–519.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elbert, T., Lutzenberger, W., Rockstroh, B., Berg, P., & Cohen, R. (1992). Physical aspects of the EEG in schizophrenics. Biological Psychiatry, 32, 595–606.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ellenberger, H. F. (1970). The discovery of the unconscious: the history and evolution of dynamic psychiatry. New York: Basic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fairbairn, W. R. (1941). A revised psychopathology of the psychoses and psychoneuroses. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 22, 50–279.

    Google Scholar 

  • Falzeder, E. (2007). The story of an ambivalent relationship: Sigmund Freud and Eugen Bleuler. Journal of Analytical Psychology, 52, 343–368.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fan, X., Henderson, D. C., Nguyen, D. D., Cather, C., Freudenreich, O., Evins, A. E., Borba, C. P., & Goff, D. C. (2008). Posttraumatic stress disorder, cognitive function and quality of life in patients with schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research, 159, 140–146.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Farina, B., Speranza, A. M., Dittoni, S., Gnoni, V., Trentini, C., Vergano, C. M., Liotti, G., Brunetti, R., Testani, E., & Della Marca, G. (2014). Memories of attachment hamper EEG cortical connectivity in dissociative patients. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 264, 449–458.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Farrer, C., Franck, N., Frith, C. D., Decety, J., Georgeiff, N., d’Amato, T., & Jeannerod, M. (2004). Neural correlates of action attribution in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 131, 31–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Feinberg, I. (1978). Efference copy and corollary discharge: implications for thinking and its disorders. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 4, 636–640.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Feinberg, I., & Guazzelli, M. (1999). Schizophrenia—a disorder of the corollary discharge systems that integrate the motor systems of thought with the sensory systems of consciousness. British Journal of Psychiatry, 174, 196–204.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Felleman, D., & Van Essen, D. (1991). Distributed hierarchical processing in the primate visual cortex. Cerebral Cortex, 1, 1–47.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ford, J. M., Mathalon, D. H., Heinks, T., Kalba, S., Faustman, W. O., & Roth, W. T. (2001). Neurophysiological evidence of corollary discharge dysfunction in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 2069–2071.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ford, J. M., Gray, M., Faustman, W. O., Heinks, T. H., & Mathalon, D. H. (2005). Reduced gamma-band coherence to distorted feedback during speech when what you say is not what you hear. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 57, 143–150.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ford, J. M., Gray, M., Faustman, W. O., Roach, B. J., & Mathalon, D. H. (2007). Dissecting corollary discharge dysfunction in schizophrenia. Psychophysiology, 44, 522–529.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ford, J. M., Roach, B. J., Faustman, W. O., & Mathalon, D. H. (2008). Out-of-synch and out-of-sorts: dysfunction of motor-sensory communication in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 63, 736–743.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Freedman, N. (1980). On splitting and its resolution. Psychoanalysis and Contemporary Thought, 3, 237–266.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freeman, T. (1997). Mental economics and psychoanalytic theories of psychotic phenomena. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 52, 029–041.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freeman, W. J. (1999). Consciousness, intentionality, and causality. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 6, 143–172.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freud, S. (1895). Project for a scientific psychology. Standard Edition 1: 281–391.

  • Freud, S. (1896). Further remarks on the neuro-psychoses of defence. Standard Edition 3:157–185.

  • Freud, S. (1900). The interpretation of dreams. Standard Edition 4:ix-627

  • Freud, S. (1911). Psycho-analytic notes on an autobiographical account of a case of paranoia (dementia paranoides). Standard Edition 12:1–82.

  • Freud, S. (1912). A note on the unconscious in psycho-analysis. Standard Edition 12:255–266.

  • Freud, S. (1914). On narcissism: an introduction, Standard Edition 14:67–102.

  • Freud, S. (1915a). Instincts and their vicissitudes. Standard Edition 14:109–140.

  • Freud, S. (1915b). The unconscious. Standard Edition 14: 159–215.

  • Freud, S. (1923). The Ego and the Id. Standard Edition 19:1–66.

  • Freud, S. (1938). An outline of psycho-analysis. Standard Edition 23:139–208.

  • Frieden, B.R. (2004). Science from fisher information. Cambridge: Cambridge University

  • Fries, P. (2005). A mechanism for cognitive dynamics: neuronal communication through neuronal coherence. Trends in Cognitive Science, 9, 474–480.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Friston, K. J. (1996). Theoretical neurobiology and schizophrenia. British Medical Bulletin, 52, 644–655.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Friston, K. J. (1998). The disconnection hypothesis. Schizophrenia Research, 30, 115–125.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Friston, K. J. (2002). Dysfunctional connectivity in schizophrenia. World Psychiatry, 1, 66–71.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Friston, K. J. (2009). The free-energy principle: a rough guide to the brain? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13(7), 293–301.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Friston, K. J., Tononi, G., Sporns, O., & Edelman, G. M. (1995). Characterizing the complexity of neuronal interactions. Human Brain Mapping, 3, 302–314.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gabbard, G. O. (2000). A neurobiologically informed perspective on psychotherapy. British Journal of Psychiatry, 177, 117–122.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gabbard, G. O. (2007). Psychotherapy in psychiatry. International Review of Psychiatry, 19, 5–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garfield, D. A. (2005). The vertical split in neurosis and psychosis: motor acts and the infrastructure of agency. Psychoanalytic Review, 92, 249–270.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gil, A., Gama, C. S., de Jesus, D. R., Lobato, M. I., Zimmer, M., & Belmonte-de-Abreu, P. (2009). The association of child abuse and neglect with adult disability in schizophrenia and the prominent role of physical neglect. Child Abuse & Neglect, 33, 618–624.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glover, E. (1943). The concept of dissociation. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 24, 7–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glover, E. (1961). Some recent trends in psychoanalytic theory. Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 30, 86–107.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg, T. E., & Weinberger, D. R. (2000). Thought disorder in schizophrenia: a reappraisal of older formulations and an overview of some recent studies. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 5, 1–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, J. A., & Hen, R. (2004). The serotonergic system and anxiety. Neuromolecular Medicine, 5, 27–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gottdiener, W. H., & Haslam, N. (2002). The benefits of individual psychotherapy for people diagnosed with schizophrenia: a meta-analytic review. Ethical Human Sciences and Services, 4, 163–187.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grant, J. A., Duerden, E. G., Courtemanche, J., Cherkasova, M., Duncan, G. H., & Rainville, P. (2013). Cortical thickness, mental absorption and meditative practice: possible implications for disorders of attention. Biological Psychology, 92, 275–281.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gray, J. A., & Roth, B. (2007). Molecular targets for treating cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 33, 1100–1119.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gray, J. A., Feldon, J., Rawlins, J. N. P., Hemsley, D. R., & Smith, A. D. (1991). The neuropsychology of schizophrenia. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 18, 617–680.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grotstein, J. S. (1977a). The psychoanalytic concept of schizophrenia: I. The dilemma. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 58, 403–425.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grotstein, J. S. (1977b). The psychoanalytic concept of schizophrenia: II. Reconciliation. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 58, 427–452.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grotstein, J. S. (1990). Nothingness, meaninglessness, chaos, and the “black hole” I—the importance of nothingness, meaninglessness, and chaos in psychoanalysis. Contemporary Psychoanalysis, 26, 257–290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harding, C. M. (2003). Changes in schizophrenia across time: paradoxes, patterns, and predictors. In C. Cohen (Ed.), Schizophrenia into later life: treatment, research and policy (pp. 19–42). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, G., Hopper, K., Craig, T., Laska, E., Sigel, C., Wanderling, J., et al. (2001). Recovery form psychotic illness: a 15- and 25 year international follow-up study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 178, 506–517.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hemsley, D. R. (2005). The development of a cognitive model of schizophrenia: placing it in context. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 29, 977–988.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hilgard, E. R. (1986). Divided consciousness. Multiple control in human thought and action. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Himelhoch, S., Taylor, S. F., Goldman, R. S., & Tandon, R. (1996). Frontal lobe tasks, antipsychotic medication, and schizophrenic syndromes. Biological Psychiatry, 39, 227–229.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hinshelwood, R. D. (2008). Repression and splitting: towards a method of conceptual comparison. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 89, 503–521.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, R. E., & McGlashan, T. H. (1993). Parallel distributed processing and the emergence of schizophrenic symptoms. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 18, 119–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, R. E., Kirstein, L., Stopek, S., & Cicchetti, D. V. (1982). Apprehending schizophrenic discourse: a structural analysis of the listener’s task. Brain and Language, 15, 207–233.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hölzel, B. K., Ott, U., Hempel, H., Hackl, A., Wolf, K., Stark, R., & Vaitl, D. (2007). Differential engagement of anterior cingulate and adjacent medial frontal cortex in adept meditators and non-meditators. Neuroscience Letters, 421, 16–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hölzel, B. K., Carmody, J., Vangel, M., Congleton, C., Yerramsetti, S. M., Gard, T., & Lazar, S. W. (2011). Mindfulness practice leads to increases in regional brain gray matter density. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 191, 36–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ives-Deliperi, V. L., Solms, M., & Meintjes, E. M. (2011). The neural substrates of mindfulness: an fMRI investigation. Social Neuroscience, 6, 231–242.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Janet, P. (1890). L’Automatisme Psychologique. Paris: Felix Alcan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, E. G. (1993). GABAergic neurons and their role in cortical plasticity in primates. Cerebral Cortex, 3, 361–372.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jung, C. G. (1909). The psychology of dementia praecox. New York: The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease Publishing Company.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Jung-Beeman, M., Bowden, E. M., Haberman, J., Frymiare, J. L., Arambel-Liu, S., Greenblatt, R., Reber, P. J., & Kounios, J. (2004). Neural activity when people solve verbal problems with insight. PLoS Biology, 2, E97.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kandel, E. R. (1998). A new intellectual framework for psychiatry. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 457–469.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kandel, E. R. (1999). Biology and the future of psychoanalysis: a new intellectual framework for psychiatry revisited. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 505–524.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kanwisher, N. (2001). Neural events and perceptual awareness. Cognition, 79, 89–113.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Katan, M. (1954). The importance of the non-psychotic part of the personality in schizophrenia. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 35, 119–128.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keefe, R. S. E., Arnold, M. C., Bayen, U. J., McEvoy, J. P., & Wilson, W. H. (2002). Source-monitoring deficits for self-generated stimuli in schizophrenia: multinomial modeling of data from three sources. Schizophrenia Research, 57, 51–67.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kent, G. H., & Rosonoff, A. J. (1910). A study of associations in insanity. American Journal of Insanity, 66/67, 37–34 317–390.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kernberg, O. F. (1975). Borderline conditions and pathological narcissism. New York: Janson Aronson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kernberg, O. F. (1982). Self, ego, affects, and drives. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 30, 893–917.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kihlstrom, J. F. (1987). The cognitive unconscious. Science, 237, 1445–1452.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kihlstrom, J. F. (2004). Availability, accessibility, and subliminal perception. Consciousness and Cognition, 13, 92–100.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kilpatrick, L. A., Suyenobu, B. Y., Smith, S. R., Bueller, J. A., Goodman, T., Creswell, J. D., Larrson, S., Andreassen, O. A., Aas, M., Røssberga, J. I., Mork, E., Steen, N. E., Barrett, E. A., Lagerberg, T. W., Peleikis, D., Agartz, I., Melle, I., & Lorentzen, S. (2013). High prevalence of childhood trauma in patients with schizophrenia spectrum and affective disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 54, 123–127.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klein, M. (1946). Notes on some schizoid mechanisms. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 27, 99–110.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klonowski, W., Jernajczyk, W., Niedzielska, K., Rydz, A., & Stepień, R. (1999). Quantitative measure of complexity of EEG signal dynamics. Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis (Wars), 59, 315–321.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kohut, H. (1971). The analysis of the self: a systematic approach to the psychoanalytic treatment of narcissistic personality disorders. New York: International Universities Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kruglikov, I., & Rudy, B. (2008). Perisomatic GABA release and thalamocortical integration onto neocortical excitatory cells are regulated by neuromodulators. Neuron, 58, 911–924.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lavenex, P., & Amaral, D. G. (2000). Hippocampal-neocortical interaction: a hierarchy of associativity. Hippocampus, 10, 420–430.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lazar, S. W., Kerr, C. E., Wasserman, R. H., Gray, J. R., Greve, D. N., Treadway, M. T., McGarvey, M., Quinn, B. T., Dusek, J. A., Benson, H., Rauch, S. L., Moore, C. I., & Fischl, B. (2005). Meditation experience is associated with increased cortical thickness. Neuroreport, 16, 1893–1897.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, K. H., Williams, L. M., Breakspear, M., & Gordon, E. (2003). Synchronous gamma activity: a review and contribution to an integrative neuroscience model of schizophrenia. Brain Research Reviews, 41, 57–78.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, S. H., Yoon, S., Kim, J. I., Jin, S. H., & Chung, C. K. (2014). Functional connectivity of resting state EEG and symptom severity in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 51, 51–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lerner, H. D., & Lerner, P. M. (1982). A comparative study of defensive structure in neurotic, borderline and schizophrenic patients. Psychoanalysis and Contemporary Thought, 5, 77–115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewicki, P., Hill, T., & Czyzewski, M. (1992). Nonconscious acquisition of information. American Psychologist, 47, 796–802.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Libet, B., Alberts, W. W., Wright Jr., E. W., & Feinstein, B. (1967). Responses of human somatosensory cortex to stimuli below threshold for conscious sensation. Science, 158, 1597–1600.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Libet, B., Wright Jr., E. W., Einstein, B., & Pearl, D. K. (1979). Subjective referral of the timing for a conscious sensory experience. Brain, 102, 193–224.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lichtenberg, J. D., & Slap, J. W. (1973). Notes on the concept of splitting and the defense mechanism of the splitting of representations. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 21, 772–787.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • London, N. J. (1973). An essay on psychoanalytic theory: two theories of schizophrenia. Part I: review and critical assessment of the development of the two theories. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 54, 169–178.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luders, E., Phillips, O. R., Clark, K., Kurth, F., Toga, A. W., & Narr, K. L. (2012). Bridging the hemispheres in meditation: thicker callosal regions and enhanced fractional anisotropy (FA) in long-term practitioners. NeuroImage, 61, 181–187.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lustman, J. (1977). On splitting. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 32, 119–153.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lysaker, P. H., & LaRocco, V. A. (2009). Health-related quality of life and trauma history in adults with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 197, 311–315.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lysaker, P. H., Buck, K. D., & LaRocco, V. A. (2007). Clinical and psychosocial significance of trauma history in the treatment of schizophrenia. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 45, 44–51.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lysaker, P.H., & Larocco, V.A. (2008).The prevalence and correlates of trauma-related symptoms in schizophrenia spectrum disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 49, 330–334.

  • Lysaker, P. H., Buck, K. D., Fogley, R. L., Ringer, J., Harder, S., Hasson-Ohayon, I., Olesek, K., Grant, M. L. A., & Dimaggio, G. (2012). The mutual development of intersubjectivity and metacognitive capacity in the psychotherapy for persons with schizophrenia. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10879-012-9218-4.

  • Mace, C. J. (1992). Hysterical conversion I: a history. British Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 369–377.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Manschreck, T. C., Maher, B. A., Rucklos, M. E., & White, M. T. (1979). The predictability of thought disordered speech in schizophrenic patients. British Journal of Psychiatry, 134, 595–601.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Manschreck, T. C., Maher, B. A., & Ader, D. N. (1981). Formal thought disorder, the type token ratio and disturbed voluntary movement in schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 139, 7–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marker, D. (2002). Model theory: an introduction. New York: Springer-Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mazur, B. (2008). When is one thing equal to some other thing? In B. Gold & R. A. Simons (Eds.), Proof and other dilemmas: mathematics and philosophy. Washington, DC: Mathematical Association of America.

    Google Scholar 

  • Melloni, L., Molina, C., Pena, M., Torres, D., Singer, W., & Rodriguez, E. (2007). Synchronization of neural activity across cortical areas correlates with conscious perception. Journal of Neuroscience, 27, 2858–2865.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Merikle, P. M., Smilek, D., & Eastwood, J. D. (2001). Perception without awareness: perspectives from cognitive psychology. Cognition, 79, 115–134.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mesulam, M. M. (1998). From sensation to cognition. Brain, 121, 1013–1052.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Modinos, G., Costafreda, S. G., Van Tol, M., McGuire, P. K., Aleman, A., & Allen, P. (2013). Neuroanatomy of auditory verbal hallucinations in schizophrenia: a quantitative meta-analysis of voxel-based morphometry studies. Cortex, 49, 1046–1055.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mojtabai, F., Nicholson, R. A., & Carpetner, B. N. (1998). Role of psychological treatments in management of schizophrenia: a meta-analytic review of controlled outcome studies. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 24, 569–588.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moran, L.J., Mefferd, R.B., Jr., & Kimble, J.P., Jr. (1964). Idiodynamic sets in word association. Psychological Monographs, 78(2), 1–22.

  • Morgan, C., & Fisher, H. (2007). Environment and schizophrenia: environmental factors in schizophrenia: childhood trauma—a critical review. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 33(1), 3–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nadel, L., & Jacobs, W. J. (1998). Traumatic memory is special. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 7, 154–157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Novey, S. (1958). The meaning of the concept of mental representation of objects. The Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 27, 57–79.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Noy, P. (1982). A revision of the psychoanalytic theory of affect. Annual of Psychoanalysis, 10, 139–186.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ogden, T. H. (1989). On the concept of an autistic-contiguous position. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 70, 127–140.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Panksepp, J., & Solms, M. (2012). What is neuropsychoanalysis? Clinically relevant studies of the minded brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16, 6–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Park, S., & Thakkar, K. N. (2010). “Splitting of the mind” revisited: recent neuroimaging evidence for functional dysconnection in schizophrenia and its relation to symptoms. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 366–368.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Paulsen, J. S., Romero, R., Chan, A., Davis, A. V., Heaton, R. K., & Jeste, D. V. (1996). Impairment of the semantic network in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research, 63, 109–121.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paulus, M. P., & Braff, D. L. (2003). Chaos and schizophrenia: does the method fit the madness? Biological Psychiatry, 53, 3–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peciccia, M., & Benedetti, G. (1996). The splitting between separate and symbiotic states of the self in the psychodynamic of schizophrenia. International Forum of Psychoanalysis, 5, 23–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peled, A. (1999). Multiple constraint organization in the brain: a theory for schizophrenia. Brain Research Bulletin, 49, 245–250.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peled, A. (2008). Neuroanalysis. Bridging the gap between neuroscience, psychoanalysis and psychiatry. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perona-Garcelan, S., Cuevas-Yust, C., Garcia-Montes, J. M., Pérez-Alvarez, M., Ductor-Recuerda, M. J., Salas-Azcona, R., Gómez-Gómez, M. T., & Rodríguez-Martín, B. (2008). Relationship between self-focused attention and dissociation in patients with and without auditory hallucinations. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 196, 190–197.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pestalozzi, J. (2003). The symbolic and concrete: psychotic adolescents in psychoanalytic psychotherapy. International Forum of Psychoanalysis, 84, 733–753.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Piagnol, A., Oïta, M., Montreuil, M., Granger, B., & Lubart, T. (2003). La fragmentation de l'espace de représentation dans les schizophrénies. Encephale, 35, 297–303.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poulet, J. F., & Hedwig, B. (2007). New insights into corollary discharges mediated by identified neural pathways. Trends in Neurosciences, 30, 14–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pulver, S. E. (2003). On the astonishing clinical irrelevance of neuroscience. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 51, 755–772.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Radua, J., Borgwardt, S., Crescini, A., Mataix-Cols, D., Meyer-Lindenberg, A., McGuire, P. K., & Fusar-Poli, P. (2012). Multimodal meta-analysis of structural and functional brain changes in first episode psychosis and the effects of antipsychotic medication. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 36, 2325–2333.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rainville, P., Hofbauer, R. K., Bushnell, M. C., Duncan, G. H., & Price, D. D. (2002). Hypnosis modulates activity in brain structures involved in the regulation of consciousness. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14, 887–901.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rapaport, D. (1951). Organization and pathology of thought. New York: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Read, J., Perry, B. D., Moskowitz, A., & Connolly, J. (2001). The contribution of early traumatic events to schizophrenia in some patients: a traumagenic neurodevelopmental model. Psychiatry, 64, 319–345.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Read, J., van Os, J., & Morrison, A. P. (2005). Childhood trauma, psychosis and schizophrenia: a literature review with theoretical and clinical implications. Acta Scandinavica Psychiatrica, 112, 330–354.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rees, G., Russell, C., Frith, C. D., & Driver, J. (1999). Inattentional blindness versus inattentional amnesia for fixated but ignored words. Science, 286, 2504–2507.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reinders, A. A. T. S., Nijenhuis, E. R. S., Paans, A. M. J., Korf, J., Willemsen, A. T. M., & den Boer, J. A. (2003). One brain, two selves. NeuroImage, 20, 2119–2125.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robbins, M. (1993). Experiences of schizophrenia. An integration of the personal, scientific, and therapeutic. New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robbins, M. (2011). The primordial mind in health and illness: a crosscultural perspective. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenfeld, H. (1947). Analysis of a schizophrenic state with depersonalization. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 28, 130–139.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rothstein, J. (1951). Information, measurement, and quantum mechanics. Science, 114, 171–175.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roy, A. (2005). Reported childhood trauma and suicide attempts in schizophrenic patients. Suicide & Life-Threatening Behavior, 35, 690–693.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sammer, G. (1996). Working-memory load and dimensional complexity of the EEG. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 24, 173–182.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sandkuhler, S., & Bhattacharya, J. (2008). Deconstructing insight: EEG correlates of insightful problem solving. PLoS One, 3, e1459.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sar, V., Taycan, O., Bolat, N., Ozmen, M., Duran, A., Oztürk, E., & Ertem-Vehid, H. (2010). Childhood trauma and dissociation in schizophrenia. Psychopathology, 43, 33–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sas, S. A. (1992). Ambiguity as the route to shame. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 73, 329–341.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Satterthwaite, T. D., Wolf, D. H., Loughead, J., Ruparel, K., Valdez, J. N., Siegel, S. J., Kohler, C. G., & Gur, R. C. (2010). Association of enhanced limbic response to threat with decreased cortical facial recognition memory response in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 418–426.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Scharff, D. E., & Birles, E. F. (1997). From instinct to self: the evolution an implication of W. R. D. Fairbairn’s theory of object relations. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 78, 1085–1103.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scheller-Gilkey, G., Moynes, K., Cooper, I., Kant, C., & Miller, A. H. (2004). Early life stress and PTSD symptoms in patients with comorbid schizophrenia and substance abuse. Schizophrenia Research, 69, 167–174.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schore, A. N. (1997). A century after Freud’s project: is a rapprochement between psychoanalysis and neurobiology at hand? Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 45, 807–840.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scott, A. (Ed.). (2005). Encyclopedia of nonlinear science. New York: Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shakow, D. (1980). Kent–Rosanoff association and its implications for segmental set theory. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 6, 676–685.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sheinbaum, T., Bedoya, E., Ros-Morente, A., Kwapil, T. R., & Barrantes-Vidal, N. (2013). Association between attachment prototypes and schizotypy dimensions in two independent non-clinical samples of Spanish and American young adults. Psychiatry Research, 210(2), 408–413.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sheth, B. R., Sandkuhler, S., & Bhattacharya, J. (2009). Posterior Beta and anterior gamma oscillations predict cognitive insight. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 21, 1269–1279.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shevrin, H. (2001). Event-related markers of unconscious processes. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 42, 209–218.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Singer, W. (1993). Neuronal representations, assemblies and temporal coherence. Progress in Brain Research, 95, 461–474.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Singer, W. (2001). Consciousness and the binding problem. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 929, 123–146.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sjostrom, R. (1985). Effects of psychotherapy in schizophrenia. A retrospective study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 71, 513–522.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Solms, M. (1997). What is consciousness? Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 45, 681–703.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Solms, M. (2004). Freud returns. Scientific American, 290, 82–88.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Solms, M., & Saling, M. (1986). On psychoanalysis and neuroscience: Freud’s attitude to the localizationist tradition. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 67, 397–416.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Solms, M., & Turnbull, O. H. (2011). What is neuropsychoanalysis? Neuropsychoanalysis, 13, 133–146.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sporns, O., Tononi, G., & Edelman, G. M. (2000). Connectivity and complexity: the relationship between neuroanatomy and brain dynamics. Neural Networks, 13, 909–922.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sporns, O., Tononi, G., & Edelman, G. M. (2002). Theoretical neuroanatomy and the connectivity of the cerebral cortex. Behavioural Brain Research, 135, 69–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stephan, K. E., Baldeweg, T., & Friston, K. J. (2006). Synaptic plasticity and dysconnection in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 59, 929–939.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stephan, K. E., Friston, K. J., & Frith, C. D. (2009). Dysconnection in schizophrenia: from abnormal synaptic plasticity to failures of self-monitoring. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 35, 509–527.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Stern, D. N. (1985). The interpersonal world of the infant: a view from psychoanalysis and development. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stern, D. B. (2004). The eye sees itself: dissociation, enactment, and the achievement of conflict. Contemporary Psychoanalysis, 40, 197–237.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stern, D. B. (2009). Dissociation and unformulated experience: a psychoanalytic model of mind. In P. F. Dell & J. A. O’Neil (Eds.), Dissociation and the dissociative disorders. DSM-V and beyond (pp. 653–663). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Svetlak, M., Bob, P., Cernik, M., & Kukleta, M. (2010). Electrodermal complexity during the Stroop colour word test. Autonomic Neuroscience, 152, 101–107.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Szilard L. (1929/1964). On the decrease of entropy in a thermodynamic system by the intervention of intelligent beings [In German published in 1929, Über die Entropieverminderung in einem thermodynamischen System bei Eingriffen intelligenter Wesen. Zeitschrift für Physik, 53:840–856]. In English published in 1964, Behavioral Science, 9, 301–10.

  • Talvitie, V., & Ihanus, J. (2011). On neuropsychoanalytic metaphysics. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 92, 1583–1601.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tang, Y. Y., Lu, Q., Geng, X., Stein, E. A., Yang, Y., & Posner, M. I. (2010). Short-term meditation induces white matter changes in the anterior cingulate. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107, 15649–15652.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tang, Y. Y., Lu, Q., Fan, M., Yang, Y., & Posner, M. I. (2012). Mechanisms of white matter changes induced by meditation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109, 10570–10574.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Teicher, M., Tomoda, A., & Andersen, S. L. (2006). Neurobiological consequences of early stress and childhood maltreatment: are results from human and animal studies comparable? Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1071, 313–323.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tirsch, W. S., Stude, P., Scherb, H., & Keidel, M. (2004). Temporal order of nonlinear dynamics in human brain. Brain Research Reviews, 45, 79–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tononi, G. (2004). An information integration theory of consciousness. BMC Neuroscience, 5, 42.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tononi, G., & Edelman, G. M. (1998). Consciousness and complexity. Science, 282, 1846–1851.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tononi, G., & Edelman, G. M. (2000). Schizophrenia and the mechanism of conscious integration. Brain Research Reviews, 31, 391–400.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tononi, G., & Koch, C. (2008). The neural correlates of consciousness: an update. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1124, 239–61. Erratum in: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (2011), 1225, 200.

  • Tononi, G., Sporns, O., & Edelman, G. M. (1994). A measure for brain complexity: relating functional segregation and integration in the nervous system. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 91, 5033–5037.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Trimboli, F., & Farr, K. (2000). A psychodynamic guide for essential treatment planning. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 17, 336–359.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tustin, F. (1988). The “black hole”: a significant element in autism. Free Associations, 1, 35–50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Uhlhaas, P. J., & Singer, W. (2010). Abnormal neural oscillations and synchrony in schizophrenia. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 11, 100–113.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Uhlhaas, P. J., Haenschel, C., Nikolić, D., & Singer, W. (2008). The role of oscillations and synchrony in cortical networks and their putative relevance for the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 34, 927–943.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Varela, F., Lachaux, J., Rodriguez, E., & Martinerie, J. (2001). The brainweb: phase synchronization and large-scale integration. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2, 229–239.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vermetten, E., & Douglas, B. J. (2004). Functional brain imaging and the induction of traumatic recall: a cross-correlational review between neuroimaging and hypnosis. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 52, 280–312.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vinogradov, S., Kirkland, J., Poole, J. H., Drexler, M., Ober, B. A., & Shenaut, G. K. (2002). Both processing speed and semantic memory organization predict verbal fluency in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 8, 171–181.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vivona, J. M. (2009). Leaping from brain to mind: a critique of mirror neuron explanations of countertransference. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 57, 525–550.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vogel, M., Spitzer, C., Kuwert, P., Möller, B., Freyberger, H. J., & Grabe, H. J. (2009). Association of childhood neglect with adult dissociation in schizophrenic inpatients. Psychopathology, 42, 124–130.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Volkenstein, M. V. (2009). Entropy and information. Basel, Boston, Berlin: Birkhauser Verlag AG.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Von Helmholtz, H. (1962). Treatise on physiological optics. New York: Dover.

    Google Scholar 

  • Von Neumann, J. (1932/1955). Mathematical foundations of quantum mechanics. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker, E. F., & Diforio, D. (1997). Schizophrenia: a neural diathesis-stress model. Psychological Review, 104, 667–685.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weng, G., Bhalla, U. S., & Iyengar, R. (1999). Complexity in biological signaling systems. Science, 284, 92–96.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Westen, D., & Gabbard, G. O. (2002a). Developments in cognitive neuroscience: I. Conflict, compromise, and connectionism. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 50, 53–98.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Westen, D., & Gabbard, G. O. (2002b). Developments in cognitive neuroscience: II. Implications for theories of transference. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 50, 99–134.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wiens, S. (2006). Subliminal emotion perception in brain imaging: findings, issues, and recommendations. Progress in Brain Research, 156, 105–121.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wigner, E. P. (1963). The problem of measurement. American Journal of Physics, 31, 6–15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wunderlich, U., Wiedermann, G., & Buchkremer, G. (1996). Sind psychosoziale Interventionen bei schizophrenen Patienten wirksam? Eine Metaanalyse. Verhaltenstherapie, 6, 4–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yovell, Y. (2000). Affect theory and the neurobiology of affective dysregulation. Journal of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis, 28, 467–481.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zurek, W.H. (1984). Maxwell’s Demon, Szilard’s engine and quantum measurements. In G.T. Moore, M.O.Scully (Eds), Frontiers of nonequilibrium statistical physics (pp. 151-160). New York: Plenum Press.

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors thank for the support by Charles University project Progress and SVV.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ondrej Pec.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Bob, P., Pec, O. Splitting in Schizophrenia: Controversies and Links Between Neuroscience and Psychodynamic Theory. Act Nerv Super 59, 106–123 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41470-017-0012-1

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s41470-017-0012-1

Keywords

Navigation