Abstract
In the practice of applied behavior analysis (ABA) treatment, implicit bias, which can be defined in behavioral terms, needs to be addressed because it may inadvertently lead to overt forms of discrimination on the basis of race. Although little research has been conducted within the field of ABA on racial implicit bias, information gathered from related fields can provide insight as to how behavior analysts can promote positive change in this area. Drawing from existing literature, recommendations are provided regarding assessment and administration of interventions to reduce racial implicit bias for clinicians. The purpose of this article is to provide strategies that behavior analysts can implement to assess and reduce behaviors related to implicit bias exhibited by practitioners, thereby reducing racial discrimination with clients and staff.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Barnes-Holmes, D., Murphy, A., & Barnes-Holmes, Y. (2010). The implicit relational assessment procedure: Exploring the impact of private versus public contexts and the response latency criterion on pro-white and anti-Black stereotyping among white Irish individuals. The Psychological Record, 60, 57–79. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03395694
Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB). (n.d.). BACB certificant data. https://www.bacb.com/BACB-certificant-data.
Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB). (2014). Professional and ethical compliance code for behavior analysts. https://www.bacb.com/wp-content/uploads/BACB-Compliance-Code-english_190318.pdf
Brookman-Frazee, L. (2004). Using parent/clinician partnerships in parent education programs for children with autism. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 6(4), 195–213. https://doi.org/10.1177/10983007040060040201
Capell, S. T., & Sevon, M. A. (2020). Applied behavior analysis within the African American community. In B. M. Conners & S. T. Capell (Eds.), Multiculturalism and diversity in applied behavior analysis: Bridging theory and application (pp. 29–46). Routledge.
Critchfield, T. S., Barnes-Holmes, D., & Dougher, M. J. (2018). Editorial: What Sidman did—Historical and contemporary significance of research on derived stimulus relations. Perspectives on Behavior Science, 41, 9–32. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40614-018-0154-9
De Houwer, J. (2019). Implicit bias is behavior: A functional-cognitive perspective on implicit bias. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 14(5), 835–840. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691619855638
Derman-Sparks, L. & the A. B. C. Task Force. (2001). Anti-bias curriculum: Tools for empowering young children. National Association for the Education of Young Children.
Devine, P. G., Forscher, P. S., Austin, A. J., & Cox, W. T. L. (2012). Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(6), 1267–1278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2012.06.003
Dixon, M. R., Dymond, S., Rehfeldt, R. A., Roche, B., & Zlomke, K. R. (2003). Terrorism and relational frame theory. Behavior & Social Issues, 12(2), 129–147. https://doi.org/10.5210/bsi.v12i2.40
Drake, C. E., Kramer, S., Sain, T., Swiatek, R., Kohn, K., & Murphy, M. (2015). Exploring the reliability and convergent validity of implicit racial evaluations. Behavior & Social Issues, 24, 68–87. https://doi.org/10.5210/bsi.v24i0.5496
Drysdale, H., van der Meer, L., & Kagohara, D. (2015). Children with autism spectrum disorder from bilingual families: A systematic review. Review Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 2, 26–38 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomdis.2016.07.003
Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2020). Hate crime statistics, 2019. https://ucr.fbi.gov/hate-crime/2019
Fernandes, R. (2016). How bias training works in one campus police department. Chronicle of Higher Education. May 16, 2016 https://search.proquest.com/docview/1790790500?accountid=166077
FitzGerald, C., & Hurst, S. (2017). Implicit bias in healthcare professionals: A systematic review. BMC Medical Ethics, 18(19). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-017-0179-8
Fong, E. H., Catagnus, R. M., Brodhead, M. T., Quigly, S., & Field, S. (2016). Developing the cultural awareness skills of behavior analysts. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 9, 84–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-016-0111-6
Fong, E. H., Ficklin, S., & Lee, H. Y. (2017). Increasing cultural understanding and diversity in applied behavior analysis. Behavior Analysis: Research & Practice, 17(2), 103–113. https://doi.org/10.1037/bar0000076
Hillard, A. L., Ryan, C. S., & Gervais, S. J. (2013). Reactions to the implicit association test as an educational tool: A mixed methods study. Social Psychology of Education, 16, 495–516. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-013-9219-5
Hussey, I., & Drake, C.E. (2020). The IRAP is not very sensitive to the attitudes and learning histories it seeks to assess. PsyArXiv. https://psyarxiv.com/sp6jx/download?format=pdf
Jackson, J. L. (2018). The non-performativity of implicit bias training. Radical Teacher, 112, 46–54.
Kanter, J. W., Rosen, D. C., Manbeck, K. E., Branstetter, H. M., Kuczynski, A. M., Corey, M. D., Maitland, D. W. M., & Williams, M. T. (2020). Addressing microaggressions in racially charged patient-provider interactions: A pilot randomized trial. BMC Medical Education, 20(88). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-020-02004-9
Kempf, A. (2020). If we are going to talk about implicit race bias, we need to talk about structural racism: Moving beyond ubiquity and inevitability in teaching and learning about race. Taboo: The Journal of Culture & Education, 19(2), 115–132 https://digitalscholarship.unlv.edu/taboo/vol19/iss2/10
Kim, D. (2003). Voluntary controllability of the implicit association test (IAT). Social Psychology Quarterly, 66(1), 83–96. https://doi.org/10.2307/3090143
Knochel, A. E. (2019). Bridging the achievement gap: Promoting equity in teachers’ use of behavior-specific praise with self-monitoring and performance feedback. [, University of South Florida]. Scholar Commons. https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/7831
Kurdi, B., Seitchik, A. E., Axt, J. R., Carroll, T. J., Karapetyan, A., Kaushik, N., Tomezsko, D., Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (2018). Relationship between the implicit association test and intergroup behavior: A meta-analysis. American Psychologist, 74(5), 569–586. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000364
LaFrance, D. L., & Tarbox, J. (2020). The importance of multiple exemplar instruction in the establishment of novel verbal behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 53(1), 10–24. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.611
Lai, C. K., Hoffman, K. M., & Nosek, B. A. (2013). Reducing implicit prejudice. Social & Personality Psychology Compass, 7(5), 315–330. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12023
Lang, R., Rispoli, M., Sigafoos, J., Lancioni, G., Andrews, A., & Ortega, L. (2011). Effects of language of instruction on response accuracy and challenging behavior in a child with autism. Journal of Behavioral Education, 20, 252–259. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-011-9130-0
Leaf, J. B., Townley-Cochran, D., Taubman, M., Cihon, J. H., Oppenheim-Leaf, M. L., Kassardjian, A., Leaf, R., McEachin, J., & Pentz, T. G. (2015). The teaching interaction procedure and behavioral skills training for individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder: A review and commentary. Review Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 2, 402–413. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40489-015-0060-y
Lillis, J., & Hayes, S. C. (2007). Applying acceptance, mindfulness, and values to the reduction of prejudice: A pilot study. Behavior Modification, 31(4), 389–411. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445506298413
Lim, N., & Charlop, M. H. (2018). Effects of English versus heritage language on play in bilingually exposed children with autism spectrum disorder. Behavioral Interventions, 33(4), 339–351. https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.1644
Little, A., Tarbox, J., & Alzaabi, K. (2020). Using acceptance and commitment training to enhance the effectiveness of behavioral skills training. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 16, 9–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcbs.2020.02.002
Magaña, S., Parish, S. L., Rose, R. A., Timberlake, M., & Swaine, J. G. (2012). Racial and ethnic disparities in quality of health care among children with autism and other developmental disabilities. Intellectual & Developmental Disabilities, 50(4), 287–299. https://doi.org/10.1352/1934-9556-50.4.287
Matsuda, K., Garcia, Y., Catagnus, R., & Brandt, J. A. (2020). Can behavior analysis help us understand and reduce racism? A review of the current literature. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 13, 336–347. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-020-00411-4
Meissner, F., Grigutsch, L. A., Koranyi, N., Müller, F., & Rothermund, K. (2019). Predicting behavior with implicit measures: Disillusioning findings, reasonable explanations, and sophisticated solutions. Frontiers in Psychology, 10(2483). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02483
Miller, K. L., Re Cruz, A., & Ala’i-Rosales, S. (2019). Inherent tensions and possibilities: Behavior analysis and cultural responsiveness. Behavior & Social Issues, 28, 16–36. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42822-019-00010-1
Moran, D. J. (2011). ACT for leadership: Using acceptance and commitment training to develop crisis-resilient change managers. International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy, 7(1), 66–75. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0100928
Power, P., Barnes-Holmes, D., Barnes-Holmes, Y., & Stewart, I. (2009). The implicit relational assessment procedure (IRAP) as a measure of implicit relative preferences: A first study. The Psychological Record, 59, 621–640. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03395684
Roche, M. J. L., Bush, H. H., & D’Angelo, E. (2018). The assessment and treatment of autism spectrum disorder: A cultural examination. Practice Innovations, 3(2), 107–122. https://doi.org/10.1037/pri0000067
Schultz, P. L., & Baker, J. (2017). Teaching strategies to increase nursing student acceptance and management of unconscious bias. Journal of Nursing Education, 56(11), 692–696. https://doi.org/10.3928/01484834-20171020-11
Steffens, M. C. (2004). Is the implicit association test immune to faking? Experimental Psychology, 51(3), 165–179. https://doi.org/10.1027/1618-3169.51.3.165
Tagg, R. (2020). ADDRESSING cultural complexities. In B. M. Conners & S. T. Capell (Eds.), Multiculturalism and diversity in applied behavior analysis: Bridging theory and application (pp. 5–18). Routledge.
Taylor, B. A., LeBlanc, L. A., & Nosik, M. R. (2019). Compassionate care in behavior analytic treatment: Can outcomes be enhanced by attending to relationships with caregivers? Behavior Analysis in Practice, 12, 654–666. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-018-00289-3
Terbeck, S., Kahane, G., McTavish, S., Savulescu, J., Cowen, P. J., & Hewstone, M. (2012). Propranolol reduces implicit negative racial bias. Psychopharmacology, 222, 419–424. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-012-2657-5
U.S. Census Bureau. (2019). QuickFacts. https://www.census.gov/data/data-tools/quickfacts.html
Zestcott, C. A., Blair, I. V., & Stone, J. (2016). Examining the presence, consequences, and reduction of implicit bias in health care: A narrative review. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 19(4), 528–542. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430216642029
Zuckerman, K. E., Lindly, O. J., Reyes, N. M., Chavez, A. E., Macias, K., Smith, K. N., & Reynolds, A. (2017). Disparities in diagnosis and treatment of autism in Latino and non-Latino white families. Pediatrics, 139(5). https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-3010
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical Approval
This article does not contain research conducted with human participants.
Additional information
This article is being published on an expedited basis, as part of a series of emergency publications designed to help practitioners of applied behavior analysis take immediate action to address police brutality and systemic racism. The journal would like to especially thank Associate Editor, Dr. Jomella Watson-Thompson. In addition, the journal extends thanks to Janani Vaidya and Dr. Marlesha Bell for their insightful and expeditious reviews of this manuscript. The views and strategies suggested by the articles in this series do not represent the positions of the Association for Behavior Analysis, International or Springer Nature.
Guest Editor, Denisha Gingles
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Jaramillo, C., Nohelty, K. Guidance for Behavior Analysts in Addressing Racial Implicit Bias. Behav Analysis Practice 15, 1170–1183 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-021-00631-2
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-021-00631-2