Abstract
The maximal number of repetitions that can be completed at various percentages of the one repetition maximum (1RM) [REPS ~ %1RM relationship] is foundational knowledge in resistance exercise programming. The current REPS ~ %1RM relationship is based on few studies and has not incorporated uncertainty into estimations or accounted for between-individuals variation. Therefore, we conducted a meta-regression to estimate the mean and between-individuals standard deviation of the number of repetitions that can be completed at various percentages of 1RM. We also explored if the REPS ~ %1RM relationship is moderated by sex, age, training status, and/or exercise. A total of 952 repetitions-to-failure tests, completed by 7289 individuals in 452 groups from 269 studies, were identified. Study groups were predominantly male (66%), healthy (97%), < 59 years of age (92%), and resistance trained (60%). The bench press (42%) and leg press (14%) were the most commonly studied exercises. The REPS ~ %1RM relationship for mean repetitions and standard deviation of repetitions were best described using natural cubic splines and a linear model, respectively, with mean and standard deviation for repetitions decreasing with increasing %1RM. More repetitions were evident in the leg press than bench press across the loading spectrum, thus separate REPS ~ %1RM tables were developed for these two exercises. Analysis of moderators suggested little influences of sex, age, or training status on the REPS ~ %1RM relationship, thus the general main model REPS ~ %1RM table can be applied to all individuals and to all exercises other than the bench press and leg press. More data are needed to develop REPS ~ %1RM tables for other exercises.
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
We applied meta-regression to data from approximately 7000 individuals to update the table of the maximal number of repetitions completed at various percentages of one repetition maximum (REPS ~ %1RM relationship). |
Sex, age, and training status did not clearly moderate the REPS ~ %1RM relationship; thus, estimates of mean repetitions and between-individuals variation in the main model table can be applied to most individuals and most exercises. |
Numbers of repetitions completed across the loading spectrum were higher in the leg press than bench press; thus, separate REPS ~ %1RM tables were created for these two exercises. |
1 Introduction
The number of repetitions that individuals can be expected to perform to volitional failure at various percentages of the one repetition maximum (1RM) [i.e., the REPS ~ %1RM relationship] is foundational knowledge in resistance exercise programming. Investigations related to this topic were first conducted in the 1950s and 1960s [1,2,3,4] and were eventually followed by two influential studies by Hoeger et al. in 1987 [5] and 1990 [6].
For many years, a table of the REPS ~ %1RM relationship has been published in a commonly assigned strength training textbook (Table 1) [7]. This table has been presented as a general guideline based on a small number of studies [e.g., 5, 6]. To the best of our knowledge, no attempt has been made to reaffirm the table, update it, or consider whether it should be made exercise or population specific. The current REPS ~ %1RM table provides only point estimates for the number of repetitions that individuals might be expected to complete at a given relative load. The table does not incorporate the uncertainty of such estimates, nor does it indicate the expected variation between individuals.
Muscle endurance or “strength endurance,” the attribute evaluated by a repetitions-to-failure test at a submaximal loads, may be impacted by sex [8,9,10,11], age [12,13,14], or muscle group [15]. Thus, potential moderating influences of sex, age, and muscle group should be considered when examining the REPS ~ %1RM relationship. Moreover, the current REPS ~ %1RM table is specific to the concentric 1RM and concentric repetitions-to-failure tests at submaximal loads. This has occurred because resistance exercise equipment such as free weights and weight stack machines involves lifting the same load in the concentric and eccentric phases, and concentric phase strength is ~ 40% less than eccentric phase strength [16]. Some evidence suggests that more eccentric-only than concentric-only repetitions can be completed at equal relative loads [17]. Thus, when coupled with the rise in popularity of eccentric resistance exercise and the emergence of eccentric exercise technologies that permit eccentric-only repetitions [11, 18, 19], the possibility that the REPS ~ %1RM relationships might differ between concentric and eccentric muscle actions should be considered. Examination of the above issues seems possible using meta-analytic methods given that numerous papers over the past several decades have included data on repetitions-to-failure tests at various percentages of the 1RM.
Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to perform a meta-regression to estimate the maximal number of repetitions that can be performed at various percentages of the 1RM and the variance between individuals in repetitions completed. More specifically, we aimed to provide an updated and more comprehensive table of the REPS ~ %1RM relationship by incorporating uncertainty of estimates from all available data. A secondary aim was to explore if the REPS ~ %1RM relationship is moderated by exercise, sex, age, training status, and muscle action type. Such information might have implications for resistance exercise prescriptions. For example, it might provide practitioners with a more accurate expectation of how many repetitions individuals can be expected to complete at given relative loads. Exploration of moderators might reveal factors that impact the REPS ~ %1RM relationship, as measured by repetitions-to-failure tests.
2 Methods
2.1 Literature Search
Our literature search was thorough, but not necessarily systematic or exhaustive. We used a mixed approach similar to that described by Greenhalgh and Peacock [20] and implementeded in our previous work [16]. The approach relied on the investigators’ personal knowledge [21, 22], checking of personal digital files, relevant keyword searches in PubMed and Google Scholar, and “snowballing” strategies (i.e., reference and citation tracking). Example keyword searches included: “repetitions to failure,” “repetitions to fatigue,” “repetitions to exhaustion,” “number of repetitions,” “maximal number of repetitions,” “muscular endurance,” “strength endurance,” “relative muscle endurance,” “local muscular endurance,” and “task failure.” Searches were performed in January and February of 2023 but were otherwise not limited by publication date. A flow diagram of the search strategy is presented in Fig. 1.
Flow diagram of search strategy. RM repetition maximum
2.2 Eligibility and Data Extraction
A study was eligible for inclusion into the meta-analysis if the following conditions were met: (a) published in English; (b) published in a paper in a journal; (c) human data; (d) the 1RM was tested rather than estimated; (e) a repetitions-to-failure test was performed (i.e., maximal number of repetitions at % 1RM); (f) the test was performed in a non-fatigued state and without concurrent experimental intervention (e.g., blood flow restriction, acute caffeine supplementation, static stretching); and (g) repetitions were reported as unadjusted group means with an accompanying estimate of variance. Both cross-sectional and exercise training studies were eligible for inclusion. With exercise training studies, the extracted data were from baseline/pre-intervention tests. With acute intervention studies, the extracted data were from either pre-intervention tests or from placebo conditions, depending on the study’s design. In studies in which participants performed multiple repetitions-to-failure sets at a given relative load, only data from the first set were extracted, subsequent sets would have been impacted by muscle fatigue. Of note, the data reported by Hoeger et al. in 1987 [5] were later reported in a more extensive paper in 1990 [6]. Thus, only the paper from 1990 was included in the final list of relevant studies.
Extracted data included sample size, number of study groups tested, study type (e.g., training study), sex, age, body mass, resistance training status and years, exercise, equipment type, 1RM, relative load tested (% 1RM), test pace method (e.g., metronome, self-paced, maximal velocity), repetition duration for the eccentric and concentric phases, and the number of repetitions completed. For age, body mass, resistance training years, 1RM, and number of repetitions completed, the means and standard deviations (SDs) were extracted. The minimums and maximums were also extracted for the number of repetitions completed. Variances reported as standard errors were converted to SDs. For papers in which data were presented in figures, the data were extracted using a graph digitzer (WebPlotDigitizer, https://automeris.io). Finally, some researchers did not report age or body mass for all study groups, but instead reported such data for the entire study sample. In such instances, if the various study groups were all from the same general demographic (i.e., sex and age group), then the values representing the entire study sample were used to represent each study group.
2.3 Statistical Analyses
All extracted data and the analysis code utilized to analyze the data are available at the Open Science Framework (https://osf.io/s94gf/). Given the aim of this research was descriptive, we opted to take a model-based [23] and estimation-based approach [24]. For all analyses, effect estimates and their precision, along with conclusions based upon them, were interpreted continuously and probabilistically, considering data quality, and all within the context of each outcome [25]. Effect size calculation and main modeling was performed using the ‘metafor’ package [26], ‘emmeans’ [27] used for moderator contrasts, and ‘performance’ [28] and ‘bayestestR’ [29] used for model comparison. All analyses were performed in R (version 4.2.2; R Core Team, https://www.r-project.org/) and RStudio (version 2023.03.0 + 492, Posit Software, https://posit.co/). All data visualizations were made using ‘ggplot2’ [30] and ‘patchwork’ [31]. Tables were produced using ‘gt’ [32], ‘gtsummary’ [33], and ‘kableExtra’ [34].
We were interested in modeling the functional form of the relationship between the relative load (i.e., %1RM, predictor variable) and the mean number of repetitions performed and the between-individuals SD in repetitions performed (response variables). As the included studies often had multiple groups and reported multiple repetitions to failure tests at different relative loads within these, the data had a nested structure. Therefore, multilevel mixed-effects meta-analyses were performed with random intercepts for study level, group level, and effect level included in all models. In each model, we allowed for random linear slopes within study and group levels. Effects were weighted by inverse sampling variance. Our initial approach was to examine a selection of different models and compare their fit and performance.
We began with comparing models for both the raw mean repetitions as well as the log-transformed mean repetitions with the predictor taking linear, log-transformed, or quadratic functional forms, and also each model was compared with either the intercept being estimated or with the predictor recentered to force the intercept to take on a value of 1RM at 100% of the 1RM (see visual comparison of these models here: https://osf.io/83c62). It was immediately obvious that the raw means would not be suitable as they permitted the models to predict impossible values (i.e., repetitions < 0). However, the mean repetitions followed a log-normal distribution (see https://osf.io/p8ryh), so we opted to only consider the models of log mean repetitions as candidates. From visual comparison of the log mean models, the linear model appeared to fit the data well. However, the estimated response values at large predictor values of %1RM appeared larger than expected (e.g., ~ 5 repetitions at 95% 1RM). Yet, the recentered models that forced the estimates to take on a value of one repetition at 100% 1RM did not appear to fit the rest of the data well. As such, we examined a final model employing natural cubic splines with knots at 60% and 80% of 1RM (where most data were available; see https://osf.io/qa5gb) and boundary knots at 0% and 100% of 1RM, hoping this model would allow for a good fit to the data available and flexibility to estimate reasonable values at higher values of %1RM. We then compared fit statistics for all log mean models (see https://osf.io/4v32n) and also compared the models using Bayes factors calculated with approximate Bayesian information criterion (see https://osf.io/432gn [35]). Fit statistics favored the natural cubic spline model and Bayes factors indicated that there was strong evidence favoring the natural cubic spline model as being a more probable description of the data generating process compared with all other models. Thus, for log mean repetitions we opted to take the natural cubic spline model forward (diagnostics for this model can be seen here: https://osf.io/e6rqf).
We followed a similar process for comparing models for the variances between people in repetitions performed. In all models, we used the log-transformed SDs for repetitions again with the predictor taking linear, log-transformed, quadratic, or the natural cubic spline functional forms as initially examined for the mean repetitions (see visual comparison of these models here: https://osf.io/wgmrj). Visually, the differences between these models were negligible, which was also confirmed when we compared fit statistics (see https://osf.io/q9brs). Examining the Bayes factors for model comparisons suggested that both the linear and natural cubic spline models had higher probabilities than log-transformed or quadratic; but evidence favoring the natural cubic spline model over the simpler linear model was only marginally positive (see https://osf.io/d87th). As such, for the log SD of repetitions, we opted to take the simpler linear model forward (diagnostics for this model can be seen here: https://osf.io/9kmzg).
A main model including all effects for both log mean repetitions and log SD of repetitions was produced for all groups in each study. From this, we exponentiated the model estimates back to the raw repetition scale to aid interpretability and present meta-analytic scatterplots showing the relationship of both mean repetitions and the SD of repetitions with %1RM with both 95% confidence intervals (CIs) and 95% prediction intervals. We also tabulated the estimated values and CIs for levels of %1RM that range from 15 to 95% (i.e., the range of the data).
As a secondary aim, we conducted exploratory interaction models for both log mean and log SD of repetitions to explore the moderating effects of sex, age, training status, and exercise performed. We also intended to explore a potential moderating effect for the muscle action type performed in testing (e.g., eccentric-only repetition, traditional eccentric-concentric repetition), but this was not possible given that only a small number of studies examined eccentric-only repetitions. For sex, we limited this to studies where groups were reported as male or female only (i.e., excluded mixed samples). We examined the mean age of the samples as a continuous predictor, but for ease of interpretation we present predicted values from this interaction model for 30, 50, and 70 years of age. For training status, we limited this to comparing those with and without prior resistance training experience as there were limited data for other populations (e.g., endurance trained) and for specific durations of prior resistance training experience. Last, we limited our examination of exercises to the bench press, chest press, squat, and leg press given that for these exercises we had more data available over a wider range of %1RM values, allowing comparison between upper- and lower-body exercise and between exercises involving similar muscle groups but different equipment (i.e., machines vs free weights). Results from the barbell squat were combined with results from the Smith machine squat, and results from the barbell bench press were combined with results from the Smith machine bench press. These data were combined because many papers did not include information on the equipment used, and of those papers that included such information, insufficient data were available to warrant exploration of separate REPS ~ %1RM relationships for Smith machine and barbell exercises. In each moderator interaction comparison, we calculated pairwise contrasts using ratios with 95% CIs given the use of log means and log SDs.
Given the potential practical utility of the REPS ~ %1RM relationship, the statistical terminology used herein also warrants brief explanation to facilitate interpretation of the results. The number of repetitions performed at a given %1RM could be described by two parameters: a mean and an SD. The mean refers to the central tendency for repetitions performed by individuals, and the SD refers to the dispersion of repetitions performed. The point estimate for a given parameter refers to the best estimate of the parameter value in the population from which the sample was drawn, given the assumptions of the statistical model employed as an estimator and the sample data (in this case, the summary data from studies included in the meta-analysis described). Thus, when referring to the point estimate for either the mean repetitions or SDs in repetitions, we are referring to our best estimate of each of these parameters. However, we also present the uncertainty in our estimates for each of these, both mean and SD, by providing CIs from our estimator for each parameter. These are interpreted as being wide enough that a certain percentage of the time (95% in the present case), if we took samples (individual studies in this case) and employed a particular statistical model (meta-analysis in this case), we would expect them to include the true value of the parameter, given that the assumptions of the statistical model are met.
3 Results
A total of 269 eligible studies were identified [1, 4, 6, 17, 36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84] [85,86,87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120,121,122,123] [124,125,126,127,128,129,130,131,132,133,134,135,136,137,138,139,140,141,142,143,144,145,146,147,148,149,150,151,152,153,154,155,156,157,158,159,160,161,162,163,164,165,166,167,168,169,170,171,172,173,174,175,176,177,178,179,180,181,182,183,184,185,186,187,188,189,190,191,192,193,194,195,196,197,198,199,200,201,202,203,204,205,206,207,208,209,210,211,212,213,214,215,216] [162, 217,218,219,220,221,222,223,224,225,226,227,228,229,230,231,232,233,234,235,236,237,238,239,240,241,242,243,244,245,246,247,248,249,250,251,252,253,254,255,256,257,258,259,260,261,262,263,264,265,266,267] [268,269,270,271,272,273,274,275,276,277,278,279,280,281,282,283,284,285,286,287,288,289,290,291,292,293,294,295,296,297,298,299,300]. These studies included 452 groups that contributed data from 952 repetitions-to-failure tests completed by 7289 individuals. The earliest study was published in 1961 and the latest in 2023. The descriptive characteristics of the groups in the identified studies are reported in the Electronic Supplementary Material (ESM) [see https://osf.io/r2xs7]. Results from 77 studies were extracted using WebPlotDigitizer.
The main descriptive results indicated that the samples (k) were predominantly male (k = 292; 66%), healthy (k = 433; 97%), < 59 years of age (k = 410; 92%; median of the mean age for samples 23 years), and resistance trained (k = 247; 60%). Barbells (k = 172; 47%), weight stack and plate-loaded machines (k = 145; 39%), and Smith machines (k = 33; 9%) were the most commonly used devices for testing. The most common exercises tested were the bench press (k = 189; 42%), leg press (k = 65; 14%), squat (k = 52; 12%), knee extension (k = 48; 11%), and chest press (k = 42; 9%). Testing was predominantly bilateral (k = 394; 89%) with repetition durationFootnote 1 controlled using a metronome (k = 94; 68%) in those studies reporting it (though the majority did not report this; k = 311). Most studies involved tests using traditional concentric-eccentric repetitions (k = 439; 98%).
Not all identified repetitions-to-failure tests were included in the meta-analyses because effect sizes could not be calculated when variances were not reported. Further, we opted to only examine tests that had performed traditional concentric-eccentric repetitions as there was limited data for either concentric-only (1.1%) or eccentric-only tests (1.3%). It was possible therefore to include the results from 425 groups and 898 tests from 6970 individuals in our analyses. The median sample size for any included group was 13 participants with a range from 3 to 112 participants.
3.1 Main Models
Both of the main models exploring the relationships between %1RM and both mean repetitions and SD of repetitions indicated a negative trend in estimates with increasing %1RM. The mean number of repetitions decreases with increasing %1RM, as does the between-individuals SD in repetitions performed. Figure 2 presents the meta-analytic scatter plots for both the mean repetitions (natural cubic spline model of log means) and the SDs of repetitions (linear model of log SDs) with 95% CIs and 95% prediction intervals, alongside an updated REPS ~ %1RM table that ranged from 15 to 95% of 1RM in 5% intervals. The precision of estimates for both means and SDs are tight up to 65% 1RM range to ~ 1 repetition. Estimates from the models are less precise for lower %1RM values due to limited data at these loads.
Meta-analytic scatterplots from main models for both the natural cubic spline model used to model log mean repetitions (top left panel) and the linear model used to model standard deviation (SD) of repetitions (bottom left panel). Estimates from both models have been exponentiated back to the raw repetitions scale. For the mean repetitions plot, the dashed horizontal reference line is at one repetition. For the SD of the repetitions plot, the dashed horizontal reference line is at zero. The grey band shows the 95% confidence interval (CI) and the dashed lines show the 95% prediction interval. A table showing the exact point estimates and 95% CIs for both mean repetitions, and SDs of repetitions, is presented that ranges from 15 to 95% 1 repetition maximum (RM) at 5% 1RM intervals (right panel)
3.2 Moderators
The impact of most of the moderators was uncertain based on the precision of estimates for the contrasts. Whilst there were slight differences when comparing moderators such as sex (sex plot https://osf.io/xcesk, sex table https://osf.io/zmd8f), age (age plot https://osf.io/3tfxd, age table https://osf.io/mt7cs), training status (training status plot https://osf.io/kupbq, training status table https://osf.io/7964a), and exercise (exercise plot https://osf.io/kx6gp, exercise table https://osf.io/bxjh9) in point estimates for both mean and SD of repetitions, almost all interval estimates on contrast ratios included 1. Thus, it is uncertain if there are moderating effects for these variables in mean repetitions or SDs of repetitions (see contrast ratio tables for sex https://osf.io/jub3h, age https://osf.io/gavmc, training status https://osf.io/9f5ke, and exercise https://osf.io/kfbuh). The only exception was for contrasts between the bench press (Fig. 3) and leg press exercise (Fig. 4), where up to ~ 50% 1RM, fewer mean repetitions were possible in the bench press, and up to ~ 35% 1RM, there was also lower between-individuals SDs in number of repetitions possible for the bench press.
Meta-analytic scatterplots for the bench press for both the natural cubic spline model used to model log mean repetitions (top left panel) and the linear model used to model standard deviation (SD) of repetitions (bottom left panel). Estimates from both models have been exponentiated back to the raw repetitions scale. For the mean repetitions plot, the dashed horizontal reference line is at one repetition. For the SD of repetitions plot, the dashed horizontal reference line is at zero. The grey band shows the 95% confidence interval (CI). A table showing the exact point estimates and 95% CIs for both mean repetitions, and SD of repetitions, is presented that ranges from 15 to 95% 1 repetition maximum (RM) at 5% 1RM intervals (right panel)
Meta-analytic scatterplots for the leg press for both the natural cubic spline model used to model log mean repetitions (top left panel) and the linear model used to model standard deviation (SD) of repetitions (bottom left panel). Estimates for both models have been exponentiated back to the raw repetitions scale. For the mean repetitions plot, the dashed horizontal reference line is at one repetition. For the SD of repetitions plot, the dashed horizontal reference line is at zero. The grey band shows the 95% confidence interval (CI). A table showing the exact point estimates and 95% CIs for both mean repetitions, and SD of repetitions, is presented that ranges from 15 to 95% 1 repetition maximum (RM) at 5% 1RM intervals (right panel)
4 Discussion
The purposes of this study were to use meta-regression to estimate the number of repetitions that individuals can be expected to complete at various percentages of the 1RM and to explore if the REPS ~ %1RM relationship is moderated by sex, age, training status, and exercise. From data collected on approximately 7000 individuals, we generated an updated main model table of the REPS ~ %1RM relationship (Fig. 2). Because sex, age, and training status did not clearly moderate the REPS ~ %1RM, the main model table can be used when prescribing resistance exercise to all individuals and for most exercises. However, differences in the REPS ~ %1RM relationship were observed for the leg press and bench press and thus separate tables were created for these two exercises. We were unable to explore muscle action type as a moderator owing to the lack of data available for repetitions-to-failure tests with eccentric-only muscle actions.
Our results update the REPS ~ %1RM table that has been presented in a commonly assigned strength and conditioning textbook for many years (Table 1) [7]. Table 1 provides only point estimates for the number of repetitions that an individual might be expected to complete at various percentages of the 1RM. Our updated table provides both mean repetition estimates, and estimates for between-individuals variation, and incorporates the uncertainty of these estimates by reporting their corresponding 95% CIs (Fig. 2).
As expected, we found that estimates for the mean number of repetitions decreased with increasing %1RM. Compared with Table 1, estimates in Fig. 2 are most different at lighter loads, whereas estimates at higher loads are more similar between Table 1 and Fig. 2. For example, in Table 1, estimates at 90% and 70% 1RM are 4 and 11 repetitions, respectively. In Fig. 2, estimates at 90% and 70% 1RM are ~ 5 and ~ 15 repetitions, respectively. For the bench press, estimates in Fig. 2 are generally similar with Table 1. For example, at 90, 80, and 70% 1RM, the estimates in Table 1 are 4, 8, and 11 repetitions, respectively. In Fig. 2, the estimates at these same relative loads are ~ 4, ~ 9, and ~ 14 repetitions, respectively. However, estimates for the leg press are notably higher in Fig. 2 than Table 1. At 90, 80, and 70% 1RM, point estimates in Fig. 2 are ~ 9, ~ 13, and ~ 19 repetitions, respectively.
In addition to the estimates for mean repetitions, Fig. 2 provides estimates for SDs for repetitions between individuals. This advances Table 1, which does not account for between-individual variability in test performance. The estimates for SDs also increases as %1RM decreases. For example, at 80% 1RM, the estimate for the SD about the point estimate is 2.51 repetitions, whereas at 60% 1RM the estimate is 4.36 repetitions. These results reveal greater between-individual heterogeneity in repetitions completed at lighter than heavier relative loads. Why between-individual heterogeneity in repetitions completed is greater at lighter loads is not entirely clear. This result may reflect the commonly observed mean–variance relationship (i.e., as means increase so do their corresponding SDs) that has been reported for other exercise outcomes such as muscle strength [301]. Our exploratory meta-regression model confirmed the presence of such a mean–variance relationship (see https://osf.io/sknyr). This variance could also be influenced by heteroskedasticity in measurement error whereby it also scales with measured repetitions. Thus, although large SDs could be due to between-individual heterogeneity in repetitions completed, a mathematical phenomenon, or heteroskedastic measurement errors, this information is still practically useful because it illustrates the amount of variance that can be expected.
We thought that sex and age might moderate the REPS ~ %1RM relationship because of evidence suggesting that sex [8,9,10,11] and age [12,13,14] impact muscle fatigability. However, the REPS ~ %1RM relationship was largely similar between men and women, and the relationship was also similar between younger and older adults, potentially questioning the magnitude of the impact of these factors on fatigability. Consequently, we did not generate sex- or age-specific REPS ~ %1RM tables.
We also examined exercise as a potential moderator of the REPS ~ %1RM relationship. We observed a difference in the REPS ~ %1RM relationship between the leg press and bench press, with greater mean repetitions completed in the leg press than bench press across the spectrum of relative loads. For example, at 80% and 70% 1RM, the estimated number of repetitions in the leg press were 13.1 [95% CI 9.8–17.5] and 19.0 [95% CI 14.2–25.5], respectively, whereas for the bench press, the estimated number of repetitions were 8.8 [95% CI 7.7–10.1] and 14.1 [95% CI 12.4–16.1], respectively. Consequently, we generated separate REPS ~ %1RM tables for the bench press (Fig. 3) and leg press (Fig. 4). For all other exercises, the main model table is most applicable (Fig. 2).
We also intended to explore if the REPS-%1RM relationship differs between concentric and eccentric muscle actions. However, only 1% of all data were from eccentric-only testing. Consequently, we could not determine whether different REPS ~ %1RM tables should exist for eccentric-only and traditional repetitions. Results from a small number of studies suggest that at equal relative loads, more eccentric-only than concentric-only repetitions can be completed at certain relative loads for some exercises [17, 169, 302]. If these results are replicated in future research, a REPS ~ %1RM table specific to eccentric muscle actions will be needed, particularly as eccentric resistance exercise is growing in popularity and new technologies are making its prescription more feasible [11, 18, 19].
4.1 Limitations and Future Research
The current study is not without limitations. Our search strategy did not follow standard guidelines for meta-analyses. The disadvantage of this strategy is that it makes future attempts to replicate the strategy challenging or impossible. Nevertheless, our search identified 269 studies, which is substantially more studies than the current REPS ~ %1RM table is based on (Table 1) [7]. Moreover, all references, analyses, and results from the current study have been made publicly available. Researchers are welcome to use the publicly available information to further explore the data or build from it. A second limitation of the current study is that the amount of data available did not permit formal analyses that might be of interest to some exercise practitioners, for example, whether the REPS ~ %1RM relationship differs between different types of athletes [92, 202, 237]. Some results suggest endurance athletes can perform more repetitions at loads ≤ 75% 1RM than can strength-power athletes [92, 202, 237]. Moving forward, the solution to such limitations is to collectmore data. More data is needed to provide more precise point estimates of the number of repetitions that individuals can be expected to complete across the relative loading spectrum. Most data from the REPS ~ %1RM relationship have been collected on healthy individuals who are aged 20–40 years. Thus, future research can examine the REPS ~ %1RM relationship in older adults, patient groups, and specific athlete groups. Future research can also explore the REPS ~ %1RM relationship for exercises that are commonly prescribed but for which minimal data are available (e.g., overhead press, lateral pulldown, seated row, triceps extension, knee flexion, calf raise). Last, only a relatively narrow range of repetition durations were reported with the magnitude of their impact being relatively small and uncertain. As some resistance training protocols employ long repetition durations and low repetition numbers (e.g., 6 repetitions at 10-s concentric and 10-s eccentric) [303], the REPS ~ %1RM relationship might differ at more extreme repetition durations, and thus further research can explore this topic.
5 Conclusions
The REPS ~ %1RM relationship is foundational knowledge in resistance exercise programming. It gives practitioners a sense of the relative loads that can be prescribed to allow for a certain number of repetitions to be completed. Though a general table of the REPS ~ %1RM relationship has been available for many years (Table 1), it has not incorporated uncertainty into point estimates or accounted for between-individuals variation in performance. We updated this table. After using meta-regression to analyze all available literature on repetitions-to-failure tests, we generated a main model table of estimates for mean repetitions and SDs and 95% CIs around the point estimates across the relative loading spectrum (Fig. 2). This table can be used to guide resistance exercise prescriptions for all individuals and for most exercises. However, because significantly more repetitions can be completed in the leg press than the bench press, separate tables should be referenced when prescribing resistance exercise for these two exercises (Figs. 3 and 4). Future research involving hundreds, if not thousands, of participants will be necessary to establish precise REPS ~ %1RM relationships for other exercises and specific populations.
Notes
As repetition duration might impact the REPS ~ %1RM relationship, we included an exploratory analysis of this in studies where the repetition duration was reported. The range for reported total repetitions durations (i.e., both concentric and eccentric phases) was 1.4–6.0 s coming from only 122 of the included studies (46%). Whilst there was a tendency for fewer repetitions to be performed when using longer repetition durations, almost all interval estimates on contrast ratios included 1 and thus it is uncertain what the exact extent of moderating effects for this variable is over this range upon mean repetitions or SDs of repetitions (see ESM for figure https://osf.io/e9y7h, estimates table https://osf.io/yjrwz, and contrasts table https://osf.io/yje3k).
References
Berger RA, Harris MW. Effects of various repetitive rates in weight training on improvements in strength and endurance. J Assoc Phys Ment Rehabil. 1966;20(6):205–7.
Clarke DH, Irving RN. Objective determination of resistance load for ten repetitions maximum for knee flexion exercise. Res Q. 1960;31(2):131–5.
Clarke DH, Herman EL. Objective determination of resistance load for ten repetitions maximum for quadriceps development. Res Q. 1955;26(4):385–90.
Hansen JW. The training effect of repeated isometric muscle contractions. Int Z Angew Physiol. 1961;18:474–7.
Hoeger WWK, Barette SL, Hale DF, Hopkins DR. Relationship between repetitions and selected percentages of one repetition maximum. J Appl Sport Sci Res. 1987;2(1):11–3.
Hoeger WWK, Hopkins DR, Barette SL, Hale DF. Relationship between repetitions and selected percentages of one repetition maximum: a comparison between untrained and trained males and females. J Appl Sport Sci Res. 1990;4(2):47–54.
Sheppard JM, Triplett NT. Program design for resistance training. In: Haff GG, Triplett NT, editors. Essentials of strength training and conditioning. 4th ed. Champaign: National Strength and Conditioning Association; 2016. p. 452.
Hunter SK. Sex differences in human fatigability: mechanisms and insight to physiological responses. Acta Physiol. 2014;210(4):768–89.
Hunter SK. The relevance of sex differences in performance fatigability. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2016;48(11):2247–56.
Hunter SK. Sex differences in fatigability of dynamic contractions. Exp Physiol. 2016;101(2):250–5.
Nuzzo JL, Pinto MD, Nosaka K. Muscle fatigue during maximal eccentric-only, concentric-only, and eccentric-concentric bicep curl exercise with automated drop setting. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2023;33(6):857–1.
Hunter SK, Critchlow A, Enoka RM. Muscle endurance is greater for old men compared with strength-matched young men. J Appl Physiol. 2005;99(3):890–7.
Hunter SK, Pereira HM, Keenan KG. The aging neuromuscular system and motor performance. J Appl Physiol. 2016;121(4):982–95.
Lanza IR, Russ DW, Kent-Braun JA. Age-related enhancement of fatigue resistance is evident in men during both isometric and dynamic tasks. J Appl Physiol. 2004;97(3):967–75.
Senefeld J, Yoon T, Bement MH, Hunter SK. Fatigue and recovery from dynamic contractions in men and women differ for arm and leg muscles. Muscle Nerve. 2013;48(3):436–9.
Nuzzo JL, Pinto MD, Nosaka K, Steele J. The eccentric:concentric strength ratio of human skeletal muscle in vivo: meta-analysis of the influences of sex, age, joint action, and velocity. Sports Med. 2023;53(6):1125–36.
Shibata K, Yamaguchi T, Takizawa K, Nosaka K. Comparison in repetitions to failure between concentric-only and eccentric-only dumbbell arm curl exercise at four different relative intensities. J Strength Cond Res. 2023;37(9):1754-60.
Nuzzo JL, Pinto MD, Nosaka K. Connective adaptive resistance exercise (CARE) machines for accentuated eccentric and eccentric-only exercise: introduction to an emerging concept. Sports Med. 2023;53(7):1287–300.
Tinwala F, Cronin J, Haemmerle E, Ross A. Eccentric strength training: a review of the available technology. Strength Cond J. 2017;39(1):32–47.
Greenhalgh T, Peacock R. Effectiveness and efficiency of search methods in systematic reviews of complex evidence: audit of primary sources. BMJ. 2005;331(7524):1064–5.
Nuzzo JL. History of strength training research in man: an inventory and quantitative overview of studies published in English between 1894 and 1979. J Strength Cond Res. 2021;35(5):1425–48.
Nuzzo JL. Narrative review of sex differences in muscle strength, endurance, activation, size, fiber type, and strength training participation rates, preferences, motivations, injuries, and neuromuscular adaptations. J Strength Cond Res. 2023;37(2):494–536.
Sterba SK. Alternative model-based and design-based frameworks for inference from samples to populations: from polarization to integration. Multivariate Behav Res. 2009;44(6):711–40.
Gardner MJ, Altman DG. Confidence intervals rather than P values: estimation rather than hypothesis testing. BMJ. 1986;292(6522):746–50.
McShane BB, Gal D, Gelman A, Robert C, Tackett JL. Abandon statistical significance. Am Statistician. 2019;73(Suppl. 1):235–45.
Viechtbauer W. Conducting meta-analyses in R with the metafor package. J Stat Softw. 2010;36(3):1–48.
Lenth RV. emmeans: estimated marginal means, aka least-squares means. R package version 1.6.1. 2021.
Ludecke D, Ben-Shachar MS, Patil I, Waggoner P, Makowski D. performance: an R package for assessment, comparison and testing of statistical models. J Open Source Softw. 2021;6(60):1–8.
Makowski D, Ben-Shachar MS, Ludecke D. bayestestR: describing effects and their uncertainty, existence and significance within the Bayesian framework. J Open Source Softw. 2019;4(40):1–8.
Wickham H, Chang W. An implementation of the grammar of graphics. 2016.
Pedersen TL. The composer of plots [R package patchwork version 1.1.1]. 2020.
Iannone R, Cheng J, Schloerke B, Hughes E, Seo J. _gt: easily create presentation-ready display table. R package version 0.8.0. 2022. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=gt. Accessed 20 Sep 2023.
Sjoberg DD, Whiting K, Curry M, Lavery JA, Larmarange J. Reproducible summary tables with the gtsummary package. R J. 2021;13(1):570–80.
Zhu H. _kableExtra: Construct Complex Table with 'kable' and Pipe Syntax_. R package version 1.3.4. 2021; https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=kableExtra>. Accessed 20 Sep 2023.
Wagenmakers EJ. A practical solution to the pervasive problems of p values. Psychon Bull Rev. 2007;14(5):779–804.
Adams KJ, Swank AM, Berning JM, Sevene-Adams PG, Barnard KL, Shimp-Bowerman J. Progressive strength training in sedentary, older African American women. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001;33(9):1567–76.
Aguiar AF, Buzzachera CF, Pereira RM, Sanches VC, Januário RB, da Silva RA, et al. A single set of exhaustive exercise before resistance training improves muscular performance in young men. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2015;115(7):1589–99.
Aguiar AF, Buzzachera CF, Sanches VC, Pereira RM, Da Silva Júnior RA, Januário RS, et al. A single set of exhaustive exercise before local muscular endurance training improves quadriceps strength and endurance in young men. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2016;56(1–2):9–18.
Akima H, Saito A. Activation of quadriceps femoris including vastus intermedius during fatiguing dynamic knee extensions. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2013;113(11):2829–40.
Alves RR, Viana RB, Silva MH, Guimarães TC, Vieira CA, Santos DAT, et al. Postactivation potentiation improves performance in a resistance training session in trained men. J Strength Cond Res. 2021;35(12):3296–9.
Anders JPV, Keller JL, Smith CM, Hill EC, Housh TJ, Schmidt RJ, et al. The effects of asparagus racemosus supplementation plus 8 weeks of resistance training on muscular strength and endurance. J Func Morphol Kinesiol. 2020;5(1):4.
Anderson T, Kearney JT. Effects of three resistance training programs on muscular strength and absolute and relative endurance. Res Q Exerc Sport. 1982;53(1):1–7.
Andrade LS, David GB, Wilhelm EN, Pinto SS, Alberton CL. Effect of high intensity interval treadmill exercise on subsequent lower and upper limb strength performance. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2023;94(1):143-50.
Arazi H, Asadi A, Gentil P, Ramírez-Campillo R, Jahangiri P, Ghorbani A, et al. Effects of different resistance training frequencies on body composition and muscular performance adaptations in men. PeerJ. 2021;9: e10537.
Arazi H, Asadi A, Roohi S. Enhancing muscular performance in women: compound versus complex, traditional resistance and plyometric training alone. J Musculoskelet Res. 2014;17(2).
Arazi H, Aboutalebi S, Taati B, Cholewa JM, Candow DG. Effects of short-term betaine supplementation on muscle endurance and indices of endocrine function following acute high-intensity resistance exercise in young athletes. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2022;19(1):1–16.
Astorino TA, Rohmann RL, Firth K. Effect of caffeine ingestion on one-repetition maximum muscular strength. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2008;102(2):127–32.
Assunção AR, Bottaro M, Ferreira-Junior JB, Izquierdo M, Cadore EL, Gentil P. The chronic effects of low- and high-intensity resistance training on muscular fitness in adolescents. PLoS ONE. 2016;11(8): e0160650.
Aube D, Wadhi T, Rauch J, Anand A, Barakat C, Pearson J, et al. Progressive resistance training volume: effects on muscle thickness, mass, and strength adaptations in resistance-trained individuals. J Strength Cond Res. 2022;36(3):600–7.
Azuma RHE, Merlo JK, Jacinto JL, Borim JM, da Silva RA, Pacagnelli FL, et al. Photobiomodulation therapy at 808 nm does not improve biceps brachii performance to exhaustion and delayed-onset muscle soreness in young adult women: a randomized, controlled, crossover trial. Front Physiol. 2021;12: 664582.
Babault N, Deley G, Le Ruyet P, Morgan F, Allaert FA. Effects of soluble milk protein or casein supplementation on muscle fatigue following resistance training program: a randomized, double-blind, and placebo-controlled study. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2014;11:36.
Baker DG. Ability and validity of three different methods of assessing upper-body strength-endurance to distinguish playing rank in professional rugby league players. J Strength Cond Res. 2009;23(5):1578–82.
Ballmann CG, Favre ML, Phillips MT, Rogers RR, Pederson JA, Williams TD. Effect of pre-exercise music on bench press power, velocity, and repetition volume. Percept Mot Skills. 2021;128(3):1183–96.
Barker M, Wyatt TJ, Johnson RL, Stone MH, O’Bryant HS, Poe C, et al. Performance factors, psychological assessment, physical characteristics, and football playing ability. J Strength Cond Res. 1993;7(4):224–33.
Bartolomei S, Di Michele R, Merni F. Effects of self-selected music on maximal bench press strength and strength endurance. Percept Mot Skills. 2015;120(3):714–21.
Bastos-Silva VJ, Prestes J, Geraldes AAR. Effect of carbohydrate mouth rinse on training load volume in resistance exercises. J Strength Cond Res. 2019;33(6):1653–7.
Beck TW, Housh TJ, Johnson GO, Coburn JW, Malek MH, Cramer JT. Effects of a drink containing creatine, amino acids, and protein combined with ten weeks of resistance training on body composition, strength, and anaerobic performance. J Strength Cond Res. 2007;21(1):100–4.
Behringer M, Heinke L, Leyendecker J, Mester J. Effects of blood flow restriction during moderate-intensity eccentric knee extensions. J Physiol Sci. 2018;68(5):589–99.
Berjisian E, Naderi A, Mojtahedi S, Grgic J, Ghahramani MH, Karayigit R, et al. Are caffeine's effects on resistance exercise and jumping performance moderated by training status? Nutrients. 2022;14(22):4840.
Biagini MS, Brown LE, Coburn JW, Judelson DA, Statler TA, Bottaro M, et al. Effects of self-selected music on strength, explosiveness, and mood. J Strength Cond Res. 2012;26(7):1934–8.
Bloomer RJ, Alleman RJ Jr, Cantrell GS, Farney TM, Schilling BK. Effects of 2-nitrooxy ethyl 2-amino 3-methylbutanoate gel on resistance exercise performance and blood nitrate/nitrite in resistance trained men. J Strength Cond Res. 2012;26(6):1680–7.
Børve J, Jevne SN, Rud B, Losnegard T. Upper-body muscular endurance training improves performance following 50 min of double poling in well-trained cross-country skiers. Front Physiol. 2017;8:690.
Brechue WF, Mayhew JL. Lower-body work capacity and one-repetition maximum squat prediction in college football players. J Strength Cond Res. 2012;26(2):364–72.
Brechue WF, Mayhew JL. Upper-body work capacity and 1RM prediction are unaltered by increasing muscular strength in college football players. J Strength Cond Res. 2009;23(9):2477–86.
Brigatto FA, Braz TV, Zanini T, Germano MD, Aoki MS, Schoenfeld BJ, et al. Effect of resistance training frequency on neuromuscular performance and muscle morphology after 8 weeks in trained men. J Strength Cond Res. 2019;33(8):2104–16.
Brown EC, Hew-Butler T, Marks CRC, Butcher SJ, Choi MD. The impact of different high-intensity interval training protocols on body composition and physical fitness in healthy young adult females. Biores Open Access. 2018;7(1):177–85.
Buckley S, Knapp K, Lackie A, Lewry C, Horvey K, Benko C, et al. Multimodal high-intensity interval training increases muscle function and metabolic performance in females. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2015;40(11):1157–62.
Buckner SL, Jessee MB, Dankel SJ, Mattocks KT, Mouser JG, Bell ZW, et al. Acute skeletal muscle responses to very low-load resistance exercise with and without the application of blood flow restriction in the upper body. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging. 2019;39(3):201–8.
Camic CL, Housh TJ, Zuniga JM, Traylor DA, Bergstrom HC, Schmidt RJ, et al. The effects of polyethylene glycosylated creatine supplementation on anaerobic performance measures and body composition. J Strength Cond Res. 2014;28(3):825–33.
Campos GE, Luecke TJ, Wendeln HK, Toma K, Hagerman FC, Murray TF, et al. Muscular adaptations in response to three different resistance-training regimens: specificity of repetition maximum training zones. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2002;88(1–2):50–60.
Carlson BR. Isotonic strength and relative isotonic endurance. Percept Mot Skills. 1970;30(1):247–52.
Carvalho L, Barroso R. Ischemic preconditioning improves strength endurance performance. J Strength Cond Res. 2019;33(12):3332–7.
Cesareo KR, Mason JR, Saracino PG, Morrissey MC, Ormsbee MJ. The effects of a caffeine-like supplement, TeaCrine®, on muscular strength, endurance and power performance in resistance-trained men. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2019;16(1):47.
Chilibeck PD, Magnus C, Anderson M. Effect of in-season creatine supplementation on body composition and performance in rugby union football players. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2007;32(6):1052–7.
Chromiak JA, Smedley B, Carpenter W, Brown R, Koh YS, Lamberth JG, et al. Effect of a 10-week strength training program and recovery drink on body composition, muscular strength and endurance, and anaerobic power and capacity. Nutrition. 2004;20(5):420–7.
Clemons JM, Duncan CA, Blanchard OE, Gatch WH, Hollander DB, Doucet JL. Relationships between the flexed-arm hang and select measures of muscular fitness. J Strength Cond Res. 2004;18(3):630–6.
Clarke ND, Kornilios E, Richardson DL. Carbohydrate and caffeine mouth rinses do not affect maximum strength and muscular endurance performance. J Strength Cond Res. 2015;29(10):2926–31.
Clarke ND, Hammond S, Kornilios E, Mundy PD. Carbohydrate mouth rinse improves morning high-intensity exercise performance. Eur J Sport Sci. 2017;17(8):955–63.
Cooke DM, Haischer MH, Carzoli JP, Bazyler CD, Johnson TK, Varieur R, et al. Body mass and femur length are inversely related to repetitions performed in the back squat in well-trained lifters. J Strength Cond Res. 2019;33(3):890–5.
Coratella G, Schena F. Eccentric resistance training increases and retains maximal strength, muscle endurance, and hypertrophy in trained men. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2016;41(11):1184–9.
Conrado de Freitas M, Cholewa JM, Freire RV, Carmo BA, Bottan J, Bratfich M, et al. Acute capsaicin supplementation improves resistance training performance in trained men. J Strength Cond Res. 2018;32(8):2227–32.
Costa E, Moreira A, Cavalcanti B, Krinski K, Aoki M. Effect of unilateral and bilateral resistance exercise on maximal voluntary strength, total volume of load lifted, and perceptual and metabolic responses. Biol Sport. 2015;32(1):35–40.
Crouter SE, Salas C, Wiecha J. Effects of an afterschool community center physical activity program on fitness and body composition in obese youth. J Sports Sci. 2017;35(11):1034–40.
da Silva TL, Cristiano Carelli L, Dutra Bráz I, Junqueira C, Rios Monteiro E, Machado Reis V, et al. Effects of ischemic preconditioning as a warm-up on leg press and bench press performance. J Hum Kinet. 2020;75:267–77.
Da Silva VL, Messias FR, Zanchi NE, Gerlinger-Romero F, Duncan MJ, Guimarães-Ferreira L. Effects of acute caffeine ingestion on resistance training performance and perceptual responses during repeated sets to failure. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2015;55(5):383–9.
Davies TB, Halaki M, Orr R, Mitchell L, Helms ER, Clarke J, et al. Effect of set-structure on upper-body muscular hypertrophy and performance in recreationally-trained male and female. J Strength Cond Res. 2022;36(8):2176–85.
Davies TB, Li J, Hackett DA. Effect of high-volume cluster sets vs. lower-volume traditional sets on accuracy of estimated repetitions to failure. J Strength Cond Res. 2023;37(6):1191–98.
De Moura H, Cholewa JM, Jäger R, Campos EZ, Rosa BV, Desn FA, et al. Acute low-dose capsiate supplementation improves upper body resistance exercise performance in trained men: a randomized, crossover and double-blind study. Int J Exerc Sci. 2022;15(2):1007–18.
De Salles BF, Polito MD, Goessler KF, Mannarino P, Matta TT, Simão R. Effects of fixed vs self-suggested rest between sets in upper and lower body exercises performance. Eur J Sport Sci. 2016;16(8):927–31.
de Souza EO, Tricoli V, Franchini E, Paulo AC, Regazzini M, Ugrinowitsch C. Acute effect of two aerobic exercise modes on maximum strength and strength endurance. J Strength Cond Res. 2007;21(4):1286–90.
de Souza NS, Gomides RS, da Silva GV, de Moraes Forjaz CL, Mion D Jr, Tinucci T. Intra-arterial blood pressure response in hypertensive subjects during low- and high-intensity resistance exercise. Clinics. 2010;65(3):271–7.
Desgorces FD, Berthelot G, Dietrich G, Testa MS. Local muscular endurance and prediction of 1 repetition maximum for bench in 4 athletic populations. J Strength Cond Res. 2010;24(2):394–400.
de Vos NJ, Singh NA, Ross DA, Stavrinos TM, Orr R, Fiatarone Singh MA. Optimal load for increasing muscle power during explosive resistance training in older adults. Gerontol Series A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2005;60(5):638–47.
Dinyer TK, Byrd MT, Vesotsky AN, Succi PJ, Bergstrom HC. Applying the critical power model to a full-body resistance-training movement. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2019;14(10):1364–70.
Dinyer TK, Succi PJ, Byrd MT, Voskuil CC, Soucie EP, Bergstrom HC. Interlimb neuromuscular responses during fatiguing, bilateral, leg extension exercise at a moderate versus high load. Mot Control. 2020;25(1):59–74.
Dorgo S, King GA, Rice CA. The effects of manual resistance training on improving muscular strength and endurance. J Strength Cond Res. 2009;23(1):293–303.
Dos Santos Nunes de Moura HP, Jäger R, Purpura M, Rathmacher JA, Fuller JC Jr, Rossi FE. Dose response of acute ATP supplementation on strength training performance. Front Sports Act Liv. 2021;3:780459.
dos Santos SN, Rizardi FG, Fujita RA, Villalba MM, Gomes MM. Preferred music genre benefits during strength tests: increased maximal strength and strength-endurance and reduced perceived exertion. Percept Mot Skills. 2021;128(1):324–37.
Douris PC, White BP, Cullen RR, Keltz WE, Meli J, Mondiello DM, et al. The relationship between maximal repetition performance and muscle fiber type as estimated by noninvasive technique in the quadriceps of untrained women. J Strength Cond Res. 2006;20(3):699–703.
Dudgeon WD, Kelley EP, Scheett TP. Effect of whey protein in conjunction with a caloric-restricted diet and resistance training. J Strength Cond Res. 2017;31(5):1353–61.
Duffey MJ, Challis JH. Fatigue effects on bar kinematics during the bench press. J Strength Cond Res. 2007;21(2):556–60.
Duncan MJ, Lyons M, Hankey J. Placebo effects of caffeine on short-term resistance exercise to failure. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2009;4(2):244–53.
Duncan MJ, Oxford SW. The effect of caffeine ingestion on mood state and bench press performance to failure. J Strength Cond Res. 2011;25(1):178–85.
Duncan MJ, Oxford SW. Acute caffeine ingestion enhances performance and dampens muscle pain following resistance exercise to failure. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2012;52(3):280–5.
Duncan MJ, Weldon A, Price MJ. The effect of sodium bicarbonate ingestion on back squat and bench press exercise to failure. J Strength Cond Res. 2014;28(5):1358–66.
Dunkin JE, Phillips SM. The effect of a carbohydrate mouth rinse on upper-body muscular strength and endurance. J Strength Cond Res. 2017;31(7):1948–53.
Durkalec-Michalski K, Domagalski A, Główka N, Kamińska J, Szymczak D, Podgórski T. Effect of a four-week vegan diet on performance, training efficiency and blood biochemical indices in CrossFit-trained participants. Nutrients. 2022;14(4):894.
Durkin M, Akeroyd H, Holliday A. Carbohydrate mouth rinse improves resistance exercise capacity in the glycogen-lowered state. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2021;46(2):126–32.
Earnest CP, Snell PG, Rodriguez R, Almada AL, Mitchell TL. The effect of creatine monohydrate ingestion on anaerobic power indices, muscular strength and body composition. Acta Physiol Scand. 1995;153(2):207–9.
Eckerson JM, Bull AJ, Baechle TR, Fischer CA, O’Brien DC, Moore GA, et al. Acute ingestion of sugar-free red bull energy drink has no effect on upper body strength and muscular endurance in resistance trained men. J Strength Cond Res. 2013;27(8):2248–54.
Ema R, Sakaguchi M, Akagi R, Kawakami Y. Unique activation of the quadriceps femoris during single- and multi-joint exercises. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2016;116(5):1031–41.
Emanuel A, Rozen Smukas I, Halperin I. How one feels during resistance exercises: a repetition-by-repetition analysis across exercises and loads. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2021;16(1):135–44.
Emanuel A, Rozen S II, Halperin I. The effects of lifting lighter and heavier loads on subjective measures. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2021;16(2):176–83.
Enemark-Miller EA, Seegmiller JG, Rana SR. Physiological profile of women’s Lacrosse players. J Strength Cond Res. 2009;23(1):39–43.
Exner RJ, Patel MH, Whitener DV, Buckner SL, Jessee MB, Dankel SJ. Does performing resistance exercise to failure homogenize the training stimulus by accounting for differences in local muscular endurance? Eur J Sport Sci. 2023;23(1):82–91.
Faigenbaum AD, Westcott WL, Long C, LaRousa LR, Delmonico M, Micheli LJ. Relationship between repetitions and selected percentages of the one repetition maximum in healthy children. Pediatr Phys Ther. 1998;10:110–3.
Falch HN, Haugen ME, Larsen S, van den Tillaar R. Association of strength performance in bench press and squat with anthropometric variables between resistance-trained males and females. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol. 2023;8(1):19.
Feuerbacher JF, von Schöning V, Melcher J, Notbohm HL, Freitag N, Schumann M. Short-Term creatine loading improves total work and repetitions to failure but not load-velocity characteristics in strength-trained men. Nutrients. 2021;13(3):826.
Filip-Stachnik A, Wilk M, Krzysztofik M, Lulińska E, Tufano JJ, Zajac A, et al. The effects of different doses of caffeine on maximal strength and strength-endurance in women habituated to caffeine. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2021;18(1):25.
Flanagan SD, Mills MD, Sterczala AJ, Mala J, Comstock BA, Szivak TK, et al. The relationship between muscle action and repetition maximum on the squat and bench press in men and women. J Strength Cond Res. 2014;28(9):2437–42.
Fliss MD, Stevenson J, Mardan-Dezfouli S, Li DCW, Mitchell CJ. Higher- and lower-load resistance exercise training induce load-specific local muscle endurance changes in young women: a randomised trial. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2022;47(12):1143–59.
Franco BL, Signorelli GR, Trajano GS, de Oliveira CG. Acute effects of different stretching exercises on muscular endurance. J Strength Cond Res. 2008;22(6):1832–7.
Freitas MC, Cholewa JM, Gerosa-Neto J, Gonçalves DC, Caperuto EC, Lira FS, et al. A single dose of oral ATP supplementation improves performance and physiological response during lower body resistance exercise in recreational resistance-trained males. J Strength Cond Res. 2019;33(12):3345–52.
Galvão DA, Taaffe DR. Resistance exercise dosage in older adults: single- versus multiset effects on physical performance and body composition. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2005;53(12):2090–7.
Gepfert M, Jarosz J, Wojdala G, Krzysztofik M, Campos Y, Filip-Stachnik A, et al. Acute impact of blood flow restriction on strength-endurance performance during the bench press exercise. Biol Sport. 2021;38(4):653–8.
Gillespie J, Gabbard C. A test of three theories of muscular endurance development. J Hum Mov Stud. 1984;10:213–23.
Girard O, Willis SJ, Purnelle M, Scott BR, Millet GP. Separate and combined effects of local and systemic hypoxia in resistance exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2019;119(10):2313–25.
Girard O, Mariotti-Nesurini L, Malatesta D. Acute performance and physiological responses to upper-limb multi-set exercise to failure: effects of external resistance and systemic hypoxia. Eur J Sport Sci. 2022;22(12):1877–88.
Glenn JM, Gray M, Wethington LN, Stone MS, Stewart RW Jr, Moyen NE. Acute citrulline malate supplementation improves upper- and lower-body submaximal weightlifting exercise performance in resistance-trained females. Eur J Nutr. 2017;56(2):775–84.
Goldstein E, Jacobs PL, Whitehurst M, Penhollow T, Antonio J. Caffeine enhances upper body strength in resistance-trained women. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2010;7:18.
Gomes TM, Simão R, Marques MC, Costa PB, da Silva NJ. Acute effects of two different stretching methods on local muscular endurance performance. J Strength Cond Res. 2011;25(3):745–52.
Gonzalez AM, Ghigiarelli JJ, Sell KM, Shone EW, Kelly CF, Mangine GT. Muscle activation during resistance exercise at 70% and 90% 1-repetition maximum in resistance-trained men. Muscle Nerve. 2017;56(3):505–9.
Grgic J, Pickering C, Bishop DJ, Del Coso J, Schoenfeld BJ, Tinsley GM, et al. ADOR2A C allele carriers exhibit ergogenic responses to caffeine supplementation. Nutrients. 2020;12(3):741.
Grosicki GJ, Miller ME, Marsh AP. Resistance exercise performance variability at submaximal intensities in older and younger adults. Clin Interv Aging. 2014;9:209–18.
Grzyb K, Candow DG, Schoenfeld BJ, Bernat P, Butchart S, Neary JP. Effect of equal volume, high-repetition resistance training to volitional fatigue, with different workout frequencies, on muscle mass and neuromuscular performance in postmenopausal women. J Strength Cond Res. 2022;36(1):31–6.
Hackett DA, Sabag A. The influence of muscular strength and local muscular endurance on accuracy of estimated repetitions to failure in resistance-trained males. Sports. 2022;10(2):27.
Haischer MH, Cooke DM, Carzoli JP, Johnson TK, Shipherd AM, Zourdos MC. The Short Grit Scale (GRIT-S) does not relate to acute muscular endurance performance. J Hum Kinet. 2021;78:263–9.
Hall ECR, Lysenko EA, Semenova EA, Borisov OV, Andryushchenko ON, Andryushchenko LB, et al. Prediction of muscle fiber composition using multiple repetition testing. Biol Sport. 2021;38(2):277–83.
Hass CJ, Garzarella L, de Hoyos D, Pollock ML. Single versus multiple sets in long-term recreational weightlifters. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000;32(1):235–42.
Hass CJ, Garzarella L, de Hoyos DV, Connaughton DP, Pollock ML. Concurrent improvements in cardiorespiratory and muscle fitness in response to total body recumbent stepping in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2001;85(1–2):157–63.
Hatfield DL, Stranieri AM, Vincent LM, Earp JE. Effect of a neoprene knee sleeve on performance and muscle activity in men and women during high-intensity, high-volume resistance training. J Strength Cond Res. 2021;35(12):3300–7.
Haynes JTt, Townsend JR, Aziz MA, Jones MD, Littlefield LA, Ruiz MD, et al. Impact of red spinach extract supplementation on bench press performance, muscle oxygenation, and cognitive function in resistance-trained males. Sports. 2021;9(6).
Hedley AM, Climstein M, Hansen R. The effects of acute heat exposure on muscular strength, muscular endurance, and muscular power in the euhydrated athlete. J Strength Cond Res. 2002;16(3):353–8.
Herda TJ, Beck TW, Ryan ED, Smith AE, Walter AA, Hartman MJ, et al. Effects of creatine monohydrate and polyethylene glycosylated creatine supplementation on muscular strength, endurance, and power output. J Strength Cond Res. 2009;23(3):818–26.
Heredia-Elvar JR, Hernández-Lougedo J, Maicas-Pérez L, Notario-Alonso R, Garnacho-Castaño MV, García-Fernández P, et al. Reproducibility and applicability of traditional strength training prescription recommendations. Biology. 2022;11(6):851.
Hoffman JR, Ratamess NA, Kang J, Rashti SL, Faigenbaum AD. Effect of betaine supplementation on power performance and fatigue. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2009;6:7.
Hostler D, Schwirian CI, Campos G, Toma K, Crill MT, Hagerman GR, et al. Skeletal muscle adaptations in elastic resistance-trained young men and women. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2001;86(2):112–8.
Islam H, Yorgason NJ, Hazell TJ. Creatine co-ingestion with carbohydrate or cinnamon extract provides no added benefit to anaerobic performance. Eur J Sport Sci. 2016;16(6):685–93.
Ivey FM, Prior SJ, Hafer-Macko CE, Katzel LI, Macko RF, Ryan AS. Strength training for skeletal muscle endurance after stroke. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis. 2017;26(4):787–94.
Izquierdo M, González-Badillo JJ, Häkkinen K, Ibáñez J, Kraemer WJ, Altadill A, et al. Effect of loading on unintentional lifting velocity declines during single sets of repetitions to failure during upper and lower extremity muscle actions. Int J Sports Med. 2006;27(9):718–24.
Izquierdo M, Ibañez J, González-Badillo JJ, Häkkinen K, Ratamess NA, Kraemer WJ, et al. Differential effects of strength training leading to failure versus not to failure on hormonal responses, strength, and muscle power gains. J Appl Physiol. 2006;100(5):1647–56.
Jacobs I, Pasternak H, Bell DG. Effects of ephedrine, caffeine, and their combination on muscular endurance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2003;35(6):987–94.
Janicijevic D, Mao H, Gu Y, Pérez-Castilla A, González-Hernández JM, García-Ramos A. Ballistic, maximal strength and strength-endurance performance of male handball players: Are they affected by the evaluator’s sex? PLoS ONE. 2021;16(4): e0249974.
Jenkins ND, Housh TJ, Bergstrom HC, Cochrane KC, Hill EC, Smith CM, et al. Muscle activation during three sets to failure at 80 vs. 30% 1RM resistance exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2015;115(11):2335–47.
Jenkins JR, Salmon OF, Hill EC, Boyle JB, Smith CM. Neuromuscular responses at acute moderate and severe hypoxic exposure during fatiguing exercise of the biceps brachii. Curr Res Physiol. 2021;4:209–15.
Jessee MB, Buckner SL, Mouser JG, Mattocks KT, Dankel SJ, Abe T, et al. Muscle adaptations to high-load training and very low-load training with and without blood flow restriction. Front Physiol. 2018;9:1448.
Jessee MB, Buckner SL, Mattocks KT, Dankel SJ, Mouser JG, Bell ZW, et al. Blood flow restriction augments the skeletal muscle response during very low-load resistance exercise to volitional failure. Physiol Int. 2019;106(2):180–93.
Johannsmeyer S, Candow DG, Brahms CM, Michel D, Zello GA. Effect of creatine supplementation and drop-set resistance training in untrained aging adults. Exp Gerontol. 2016;83:112–9.
Johnson D, Lynch J, Nash K, Cygan J, Mayhew JL. Relationship of lat-pull repetitions and pull-ups to maximal lat-pull and pull-up strength in men and women. J Strength Cond Res. 2009;23(3):1022–8.
Jones L, Johnstone I, Day C, Le Marquer S, Hulton AT. The dose-effects of caffeine on lower body maximal strength, muscular endurance, and rating of perceived exertion in strength-trained females. Nutrients. 2021;13(10).
Jordan AN, Jurca R, Abraham EH, Salikhova A, Mann JK, Morss GM, et al. Effects of oral ATP supplementation on anaerobic power and muscular strength. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2004;36(6):983–1000.
Santos Junior E, Des BF, Dias I, Simão R, Willardson JM. Effects of six-week periodized versus non-periodized kettlebell swing training on strength, power and muscular endurance. Int J Exerc Sci. 2022;15(4):526–40.
Kanitz AC, Delevatti RS, Reichert T, Liedtke GV, Ferrari R, Almada BP, et al. Effects of two deep water training programs on cardiorespiratory and muscular strength responses in older adults. Exp Gerontol. 2015;64:55–61.
Karayigit R, Forbes SC, Naderi A, Candow DG, Yildirim UC, Akca F, et al. Different doses of carbohydrate mouth rinse have no effect on exercise performance in resistance trained women. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(7):3463.
Karayigit R, Koz M, Sánchez-Gómez A, Naderi A, Yildirim UC, Domínguez R, et al. High dose of caffeine mouth rinse increases resistance training performance in men. Nutrients. 2021;13(11):3800.
Karayigit R, Eser MC, Gur F, Sari C, Cepicka L, Gabrys T. Carbohydrate mouth rinse increases high but not low intensity repetitions to failure in resistance-trained males. Nutrients. 2022;14(4):875.
Karayigit R, Ali A, Rezaei S, Ersoz G, Lago-Rodriguez A, Domínguez R, et al. Effects of carbohydrate and caffeine mouth rinsing on strength, muscular endurance and cognitive performance. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2021;18(1):63.
Karayigit R, Naderi A, Akca F, Cruz C, Sarshin A, Yasli BC, et al. Effects of different doses of caffeinated coffee on muscular endurance, cognitive performance, and cardiac autonomic modulation in caffeine naive female athletes. Nutrients. 2020;13(1):2.
Kelly SB, Brown LE, Hooker SP, Swan PD, Buman MP, Alvar BA, et al. Comparison of concentric and eccentric bench press repetitions to failure. J Strength Cond Res. 2015;29(4):1027–32.
Kerksick CM, Mayhew JL, Grimstvedt ME, Greenwood M, Rasmussen CJ, Kreider RB. Factors that contribute to and account for strength and work capacity in a large cohort of recreationally trained adult healthy men with high- and low-strength levels. J Strength Cond Res. 2014;28(5):1246–54.
Kerksick CM, Roberts MD, Dalbo VJ, Sunderland KL. Intramuscular phosphagen status and the relationship to muscle performance across the age spectrum. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2016;116(1):115–27.
Kikuchi N, Nakazato K. Low-load bench press and push-up induce similar muscle hypertrophy and strength gain. J Exerc Sci Fit. 2017;15(1):37–42.
Klemp A, Dolan C, Quiles JM, Blanco R, Zoeller RF, Graves BS, et al. Volume-equated high- and low-repetition daily undulating programming strategies produce similar hypertrophy and strength adaptations. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2016;41(7):699–705.
Kokkonen J, Nelson AG, Eldredge C, Winchester JB. Chronic static stretching improves exercise performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39(10):1825–31.
Kolind MI, Gam S, Phillip JG, Pareja-Blanco F, Olsen HB, Gao Y, et al. Effects of low load exercise with and without blood-flow restriction on microvascular oxygenation, muscle excitability and perceived pain. Eur J Sport Sci. 2023;23(4):542–51.
Kraemer WJ, Fleck SJ, Maresh CM, Ratamess NA, Gordon SE, Goetz KL, et al. Acute hormonal responses to a single bout of heavy resistance exercise in trained power lifters and untrained men. Can J Appl Physiol. 1999;24(6):524–37.
Kravitz L, Akalan C, Nowicki K, Kinzey SJ. Prediction of 1 repetition maximum in high-school power lifters. J Strength Cond Res. 2003;17(1):167–72.
Krzysztofik M, Wilk M, Filip A, Zmijewski P, Zajac A, Tufano JJ. Can post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) improve resistance training volume during the bench press exercise? Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17(7):2554.
Krzysztofik M, Matykiewicz P, Filip-Stachnik A, Humińska-Lisowska K, Rzeszutko-Bełzowska A, Wilk M. Range of motion of resistance exercise affects the number of performed repetitions but not a time under tension. Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):14847.
Laur DJ, Anderson T, Geddes G, Crandall A, Pincivero DM. The effects of acute stretching on hamstring muscle fatigue and perceived exertion. J Sports Sci. 2003;21(3):163–70.
Loenneke JP, Balapur A, Thrower AD, Barnes JT, Pujol TJ. The perceptual responses to occluded exercise. Int J Sports Med. 2011;32(3):181–4.
Machek SB, Cardaci TD, Wilburn DT, Cholewinski MC, Latt SL, Harris DR, et al. Neoprene knee sleeves of varying tightness augment barbell squat one repetition maximum performance without improving other indices of muscular strength, power, or endurance. J Strength Cond Res. 2021;35(Suppl. 1):S6-15.
Mandic S, Tymchak W, Kim D, Daub B, Quinney HA, Taylor D, et al. Effects of aerobic or aerobic and resistance training on cardiorespiratory and skeletal muscle function in heart failure: a randomized controlled pilot trial. Clin Rehabil. 2009;23(3):207–16.
Mangine GT, Serafini PR, Stratton MT, Olmos AA, VanDusseldorp TA, Feito Y. Effect of the repetitions-in-reserve resistance training strategy on bench press performance, perceived effort, and recovery in trained men. J Strength Cond Res. 2022;36(1):1–9.
Marchant DC, Greig M, Bullough J, Hitchen D. Instructions to adopt an external focus enhance muscular endurance. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2011;82(3):466–73.
Martin JS, Mumford PW, Haun CT, Luera MJ, Muddle TWD, Colquhoun RJ, et al. Effects of a pre-workout supplement on hyperemia following leg extension resistance exercise to failure with different resistance loads. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2017;14:38.
Martin AC, Candow D. Effects of online yoga and Tai Chi on physical health outcome measures of adult informal caregivers. Int J Yoga. 2019;12(1):37–44.
Martorelli SS, Martorelli AS, Pereira MC, Rocha-Junior VA, Tan JG, Alvarenga JG, et al. Graduated compression sleeves: effects on metabolic removal and neuromuscular performance. J Strength Cond Res. 2015;29(5):1273–8.
Martorelli S, Cadore EL, Izquierdo M, Celes R, Martorelli A, Cleto VA, et al. Strength training with repetitions to failure does not provide additional strength and muscle hypertrophy gains in young women. Eur J Transl Myol. 2017;27(2):6339.
Marx JO, Ratamess NA, Nindl BC, Gotshalk LA, Volek JS, Dohi K, et al. Low-volume circuit versus high-volume periodized resistance training in women. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001;33(4):635–43.
Maszczyk A, Wilk M, Krzysztofik M, Gepfert M, Zając A, Petr M, et al. The effects of resistance training experience on movement characteristics in the bench press exercise. Biol Sport. 2020;37(1):79–83.
Maughan RJ, Harmon M, Leiper JB, Sale D, Delman A. Endurance capacity of untrained males and females in isometric and dynamic muscular contractions. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1986;55(4):395–400.
Mazzetti SA, Kraemer WJ, Volek JS, Duncan ND, Ratamess NA, Gómez AL, et al. The influence of direct supervision of resistance training on strength performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000;32(6):1175–84.
Melchiorri G, Rainoldi A. Muscle fatigue induced by two different resistances: elastic tubing versus weight machines. J Electromyogr Kinesiol. 2011;21(6):954–9.
Merchant CR, Chapman T, Kilbreath SL, Refshauge KM, Krupa K. Decreased muscle strength following management of breast cancer. Disabil Rehabil. 2008;30(15):1098–105.
Merrigan JJ, Jones MT, White JB. A comparison of compound set and traditional set resistance training in women: changes in muscle strength, endurance, quantity, and architecture. J Sci Sport Exerc. 2019;1:264–72.
Mettler S, Mitchell N, Tipton KD. Increased protein intake reduces lean body mass loss during weight loss in athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2010;42(2):326–37.
Miles MP, Heil DP, Larson KR, Conant SB, Schneider SM. Prior resistance training and sex influence muscle responses to arm suspension. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2005;37(11):1983–9.
Millender DJ, Mang ZA, Beam JR, Realzola RA, Kravitz L. The effect of rest interval length on upper and lower body exercises in resistance-trained females. Int J Exerc Sci. 2021;14(7):1178–91.
Miller AEJ, MacDougall JD, Tarnopolsky MA, Sale DG. Gender differences in strength and muscle fiber characteristics. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1993;66:254–62.
Mills S, Candow DG, Forbes SC, Neary JP, Ormsbee MJ, Antonio J. Effects of creatine supplementation during resistance training sessions in physically active young adults. Nutrients. 2020;12(6):1880.
Miranda DP, Alves WEFM, Lopes HHMC, de Santana VJ, Bocchi EA, Salemi VMC. Association between right heart dimensions and muscle performance and cardiorespiratory capacity in strength and endurance athletes. Transl Sports Med. 2021;4:470–80.
Miras-Moreno S, Pérez-Castilla A, García-Ramos A. Lifting velocity as a predictor of the maximum number of repetitions that can be performed to failure during the prone bench pull exercise. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2022;17(8):1213–21.
Mitchell CJ, Churchward-Venne TA, West DW, Burd NA, Breen L, Baker SK, et al. Resistance exercise load does not determine training-mediated hypertrophic gains in young men. J Appl Physiol. 2012;113(1):71–7.
Mitter B, Zhang L, Bauer P, Baca A, Tschan H. Modelling the relationship between load and repetitions to failure in resistance training: a Bayesian analysis. Eur J Sport Sci. 2023;23(7):1203–13.
Mitter B, Csapo R, Bauer P, Tschan H. Reproducibility of strength performance and strength-endurance profiles: a test-retest study. PLoS ONE. 2022;17(5): e0268074.
Moir GL, Erny KF, Davis SE, Guers JJ, Witmer CA. The development of a repetition-load scheme for the eccentric-only bench press exercise. J Hum Kinet. 2013;38:23–31.
Moraes E, Alves HB, Teixeira AL, Dias MR, Miranda H, Simao R. Relationship between repetitions and selected percentage of one repetition maximum in trained and untrained adolescent subjects. J Exerc Physiol Online. 2014;17(2):27–35.
Morales J, Sobonya S. Use of submaximal repetition tests for predicting 1-RM strength in class athletes. J Strength Cond Res. 1996;10(3):186–9.
Mosher SL, Sparks SA, Williams EL, Bentley DJ, Mc Naughton LR. Ingestion of a nitric oxide enhancing supplement improves resistance exercise performance. J Strength Cond Res. 2016;30(12):3520–4.
Motoyama YL, Joel GB, Pereira PEA, Esteves GJ, Azevedo P. Airflow-restricting mask reduces acute performance in resistance exercise. Sports. 2016;4(4):46.
Nickerson BS, Williams TD, Snarr RL, Garza JM, Salinas G. Evaluation of load-velocity relationships and repetitions-to-failure equations in the presence of male and female spotters. J Strength Cond Res. 2020;34(9):2427–33.
Noble L, McCraw LW. Comparative effects of isometric and isotonic training programs on relative-load endurance and work capacity. Res Q. 1973;44(1):96–108.
Norum M, Risvang LC, Bjørnsen T, Dimitriou L, Rønning PO, Bjørgen M, et al. Caffeine increases strength and power performance in resistance-trained females during early follicular phase. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2020;30(11):2116–29.
Nunes JA, Crewther BT, Viveiros L, De Rose D, Aoki MS. Effects of resistance training periodization on performance and salivary immune-endocrine responses of elite female basketball players. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2011;51(4):676–82.
Nuzzo JL, Pinto MD, Nosaka K. Muscle strength and activity in men and women performing maximal effort biceps curl exercise on a new machine that automates eccentric overload and drop setting. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2023; 123(6):1381–96.
Odgers JB, Zourdos MC, Helms ER, Candow DG, Dahlstrom B, Bruno P, et al. Rating of perceived exertion and velocity relationships among trained males and remales in the front squat and hexagonal bar deadlift. J Strength Cond Res. 2021;35(Suppl. 1):S23-30.
Ozaki H, Kubota A, Natsume T, Loenneke JP, Abe T, Machida S, et al. Effects of drop sets with resistance training on increases in muscle CSA, strength, and endurance: a pilot study. J Sports Sci. 2018;36(6):691–6.
Outlaw JJ, Smith-Ryan AE, Buckley AL, Urbina SL, Hayward S, Wingfield HL, et al. Effects of β-Alanine on body composition and performance measures in collegiate women. J Strength Cond Res. 2016;30(9):2627–37.
Painelli VS, Roschel H, Gualano B, Del-Favero S, Benatti FB, Ugrinowitsch C, et al. The effect of carbohydrate mouth rinse on maximal strength and strength endurance. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2011;11(9):2381–6.
Pakulak A, Candow DG, de Zepetnek JT, Forbes SC, Basta D. Effects of creatine and caffeine supplementation during resistance training on body composition, strength, endurance, rating of perceived exertion and fatigue in trained young adults. J Diet Suppl. 2022;19(5):587–602.
Panissa VL, Azevedo NR, Julio UF, Andreato LV, Pinto ESCM, Hardt F, et al. Maximum number of repetitions, total weight lifted and neuromuscular fatigue in individuals with different training backgrounds. Biol Sport. 2013;30(2):131–6.
Panissa VL, Tricoli VA, Julio UF, Ribeiro N, de Azevedo Neto RM, Carmo EC, et al. Acute effect of high-intensity aerobic exercise performed on treadmill and cycle ergometer on strength performance. J Strength Cond Res. 2015;29(4):1077–82.
Panza P, Vianna JM, Damasceno VO, Aranda LC, Bentes CM, da Silva NJ, et al. Energy cost, number of maximum repetitions, and rating of perceived exertion in resistance exercise with stable and unstable platforms. J Exerc Physiol Online. 2014;17(3):77–87.
Peddle-McIntyre CJ, Bell G, Fenton D, McCargar L, Courneya KS. Feasibility and preliminary efficacy of progressive resistance exercise training in lung cancer survivors. Lung Cancer. 2012;75(1):126–32.
Pedrosa G, Boaventura S, Abreu E, Gonçalves R, Prestes J, Gordon M, et al. Resistance exercise type but no training status affects the relationships between the maximum number of repetitions and the selected percentages of one repetition maximum. Gazz Med Ital. 2015;175(9):371–7.
Peiffer JJ, Galvão DA, Gibbs Z, Smith K, Turner D, Foster J, et al. Strength and functional characteristics of men and women 65 years and older. Rejuvenation Res. 2010;13(1):75–82.
Pérez-Castilla A, Jukic I, Haff GG, García-Ramos A. The bench press grip width does not affect the number of repetitions performed at different velocity loss thresholds. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(3):1057.
Pérez-Guisado J, Jakeman PM. Citrulline malate enhances athletic anaerobic performance and relieves muscle soreness. J Strength Cond Res. 2010;24(5):1215–22.
Pick J, Becque D. The relationship between training status and intensity on muscle activation and relative submaximal lifting capacity during the back squat. J Strength Cond Res. 2000;14(2):175–81.
Pincivero DM, Coelho AJ, Campy RM. Gender differences in perceived exertion during fatiguing knee extensions. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2004;36(1):109–17.
Prestes JRAT, de Araujo SE, da Cunha ND, de Oliveira RPNFC, et al. Strength and muscular adaptations after 6 weeks of rest-pause vs. traditional multiple-sets resistance training in trained subjects. J Strength Cond Res. 2019;33 Suppl. 1:S113–21.
Rana SR, Chleboun GS, Gilders RM, Hagerman FC, Herman JR, Hikida RS, et al. Comparison of early phase adaptations for traditional strength and endurance, and low velocity resistance training programs in college-aged women. J Strength Cond Res. 2008;22(1):119–27.
Reed JP, Schilling BK, Murlasits Z. Acute neuromuscular and metabolic responses to concurrent endurance and resistance exercise. J Strength Cond Res. 2013;27(3):793–801.
Reichert T, Delevatti RS, Prado AKG, Bagatini NC, Simmer NM, Meinerz AP, et al. Low- and high-volume water-based resistance training induces similar strength and functional capacity improvements in older women: a randomized study. J Phys Act Health. 2018;15(8):592–9.
Ribeiro AS, Romanzini M, Dias DF, Ohara D, da Silva DR, Achour A Jr, et al. Static stretching and performance in multiple sets in the bench press exercise. J Strength Cond Res. 2014;28(4):1158–63.
Richens B, Cleather DJ. The relationship between the number of repetitions performed at given intensities is different in endurance and strength trained athletes. Biol Sport. 2014;31(2):157–61.
Richmond SR, Godard MP. The effects of varied rest periods between sets to failure using the bench press in recreationally trained men. J Strength Cond Res. 2004;18(4):846–9.
Rodríguez-Rosell D, Yáñez-García JM, Sánchez-Medina L, Mora-Custodio R, González-Badillo JJ. Relationship between velocity loss and repetitions in reserve in the bench press and back squat exercises. J Strength Cond Res. 2020;34(9):2537–47.
Rossi FE, Gerosa-Neto J, Zanchi NE, Cholewa JM, Lira FS. Impact of short and moderate rest intervals on the acute immunometabolic response to exhaustive strength exercise: part I. J Strength Cond Res. 2016;30(6):1563–9.
Ryan ED, Everett KL, Smith DB, Pollner C, Thompson BJ, Sobolewski EJ, et al. Acute effects of different volumes of dynamic stretching on vertical jump performance, flexibility and muscular endurance. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging. 2014;34(6):485–92.
Sale DG, MacDougall JD, Jacobs I, Garner S. Interaction between concurrent strength and endurance training. J Appl Physiol. 1990;68(1):260–70.
Sandbach PJ, Carvajal MS, Uygur M, Dankel SJ. The impact of postexercise blood flow restriction on local muscle endurance of a remote limb. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging. 2022;42(5):356–61.
Saric J, Lisica D, Orlic I, Grgic J, Krieger JW, Vuk S, et al. Resistance training frequencies of 3 and 6 times per week produce similar muscular adaptations in resistance-trained men. J Strength Cond Res. 2019;33(Suppl. 1):S122–9.
Schoenell MC, Alberton CL, Tiggemann CL, Noll M, Costa R, Santos NS, et al. Effects of single vs. multiple sets during 10 weeks of water-based resistance training on neuromuscular adaptations in young women. Int J Sports Med. 2016;37(10):813–8.
Schoenfeld BJ, Contreras B, Willardson JM, Fontana F, Tiryaki-Sonmez G. Muscle activation during low- versus high-load resistance training in well-trained men. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2014;114(12):2491–7.
Schoenfeld BJ, Contreras B, Ogborn D, Galpin A, Krieger J, Sonmez GT. Effects of varied versus constant loading zones on muscular adaptations in trained men. Int J Sports Med. 2016;37(6):442–7.
Schoenfeld BJ, Contreras B, Vigotsky AD, Peterson M. Differential effects of heavy versus moderate loads on measures of strength and hypertrophy in resistance-trained men. J Sports Sci Med. 2016;15(4):715–22.
Schoenfeld BJ, Pope ZK, Benik FM, Hester GM, Sellers J, Nooner JL, et al. Longer interset rest periods enhance muscle strength and hypertrophy in resistance-trained men. J Strength Cond Res. 2016;30(7):1805–12.
Schoenfeld BJ, Contreras B, Krieger J, Grgic J, Delcastillo K, Belliard R, et al. Resistance training volume enhances muscle hypertrophy but not strength in trained men. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2019;51(1):94–103.
Schoenfeld BJ, Grgic J, Contreras B, Delcastillo K, Alto A, Haun C, et al. To flex or rest: does adding no-load isometric actions to the inter-set rest period in resistance training enhance muscular adaptations? A randomized-controlled trial. Front Physiol. 2019;10:1571.
Schwarz NA, McKinley-Barnard SK. Acute oral ingestion of a multi-ingredient preworkout supplement increases exercise performance and alters postexercise hormone responses: a randomized crossover, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial. J Diet Suppl. 2020;17(2):211–26.
Scott CB. Contribution of blood lactate to the energy expenditure of weight training. J Strength Cond Res. 2006;20(2):404–11.
Scott CB, Leighton BH, Ahearn KJ, McManus JJ. Aerobic, anaerobic, and excess postexercise oxygen consumption energy expenditure of muscular endurance and strength: 1-set of bench press to muscular fatigue. J Strength Cond Res. 2011;25(4):903–8.
Senna GW, Rodrigues BM, Sandy D, Scudese E, Bianco A, Dantas EHM. Heavy vs light load single-joint exercise performance with different rest intervals. J Hum Kinet. 2017;58:197–206.
Seynnes O, Fiatarone Singh MA, Hue O, Pras P, Legros P, Bernard PL. Physiological and functional responses to low-moderate versus high-intensity progressive resistance training in frail elders. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2004;59(5):503–9.
Sheridan A, Marchant DC, Williams EL, Jones HS, Hewitt PA, Sparks A. Presence of spotters improves bench press performance: a deception study. J Strength Cond Res. 2019;33(7):1755–61.
Shibata K, Takizawa K, Tomabechi N, Nosaka K, Mizuno M. Comparison between two volume-matched squat exercises with and without momentary failure for changes in hormones, maximal voluntary isometric contraction strength, and perceived muscle soreness. J Strength Cond Res. 2021;35(11):3063–8.
Shields N, Taylor NF, Dodd KJ. Effects of a community-based progressive resistance training program on muscle performance and physical function in adults with Down syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2008;89(7):1215–20.
Shimano T, Kraemer WJ, Spiering BA, Volek JS, Hatfield DL, Silvestre R, et al. Relationship between the number of repetitions and selected percentages of one repetition maximum in free weight exercises in trained and untrained men. J Strength Cond Res. 2006;20(4):819–23.
Silva RF, Cadore EL, Kothe G, Guedes M, Alberton CL, Pinto SS, et al. Concurrent training with different aerobic exercises. Int J Sports Med. 2012;33(8):627–34.
Simão R, Farinatti Pde T, Polito MD, Viveiros L, Fleck SJ. Influence of exercise order on the number of repetitions performed and perceived exertion during resistance exercise in women. J Strength Cond Res. 2007;21(1):23–8.
Singh F, Galvão DA, Newton RU, Spry NA, Baker MK, Taaffe DR. Feasibility and preliminary efficacy of a 10-week resistance and aerobic exercise intervention during neoadjuvant chemoradiation treatment in rectal cancer patients. Integr Cancer Ther. 2018;17(3):952–9.
Smith CM, Housh TJ, Hill EC, Schmidt RJ, Johnson GO. Time course of changes in neuromuscular responses at 30% versus 70% 1 repetition maximum during dynamic constant external resistance leg extensions to failure. Int J Exerc Sci. 2017;10(3):365–78.
Song JS, Kataoka R, Yamada Y, Wong V, Spitz RW, Bell ZW, et al. The hypoalgesic effect of low-load exercise to failure is not augmented by blood flow restriction. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2022;Online ahead of print.
Stamford BA, Moffatt R. Anabolic steroid: effectiveness as an ergogenic aid to experienced weight trainers. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 1974;14(3):191–7.
Stone WJ, Coulter SP. Strength/endurance effects from three resistance training protocols with women. J Strength Cond Res. 1994;8(4):231–4.
Taylor NF, Dodd KJ, Prasad D, Denisenko S. Progressive resistance exercise for people with multiple sclerosis. Disabil Rehabil. 2006;28(18):1119–26.
Terada K, Kikuchi N, Burt D, Voisin S, Nakazato K. Low-load resistance training to volitional failure induces muscle hypertrophy similar to volume-matched, velocity fatigue. J Strength Cond Res. 2022;36(6):1576–81.
Terzis G, Spengos K, Manta P, Sarris N, Georgiadis G. Fiber type composition and capillary density in relation to submaximal number of repetitions in resistance exercise. J Strength Cond Res. 2008;22(3):845–50.
Timon R, Collado-Mateo D, Olcina G, Gusi N. Effects of interset whole-body vibration on bench press resistance training in trained and untrained individuals. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2016;56(3):232–40.
Tinsley GM, Forsse JS, Butler NK, Paoli A, Bane AA, La Bounty PM, et al. Time-restricted feeding in young men performing resistance training: a randomized controlled trial. Eur J Sport Sci. 2017;17(2):200–7.
Trexler ET, Smith-Ryan AE, Roelofs EJ, Hirsch KR, Mock MG. Effects of coffee and caffeine anhydrous on strength and sprint performance. Eur J Sport Sci. 2016;16(6):702–10.
Valério DF, Berton R, Barbieri JF, Calzavara J, De Moraes AC, Barroso R. The effects of lifting straps in maximum strength, number of repetitions and muscle activation during lat pull-down. Sports Biomech. 2021;20(7):858–65.
Van Zant RS, Conway JM, Seale JL. A moderate carbohydrate and fat diet does not impair strength performance in moderately trained males. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2002;42(1):31–7.
Varovic D, Grgic J, Schoenfeld BJ, Vuk S. Ergogenic effects of sodium bicarbonate on resistance exercise: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Strength Cond Res. 2023;37(8):1600–08.
Vasquez LM, McBride JM, Paul JA, Alley JR, Carson LT, Goodman CL. Effect of resistance exercise performed to volitional failure on ratings of perceived exertion. Percept Mot Skills. 2013;117(3):881–91.
Vincent KR, Braith RW, Feldman RA, Magyari PM, Cutler RB, Persin SA, et al. Resistance exercise and physical performance in adults aged 60 to 83. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2002;50(6):1100–7.
Visconti LM, Cotter JA, Schick EE, Daniels N, Viray FE, Purcell CA, et al. Impact of varying doses of omega-3 supplementation on muscle damage and recovery after eccentric resistance exercise. Metabol Open. 2021;12: 100133.
Wadhi T, Barakat C, Evangelista AL, Pearson JR, Anand AS, Morrison TEA, et al. Loaded inter-set stretching for muscular adaptations in trained males: is the hype real? Int J Sports Med. 2022;43(2):168–76.
Walker S, Hulmi JJ, Wernbom M, Nyman K, Kraemer WJ, Ahtiainen JP, et al. Variable resistance training promotes greater fatigue resistance but not hypertrophy versus constant resistance training. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2013;113(9):2233–44.
Wankhede S, Mohan V, Thakurdesai P. Beneficial effects of fenugreek glycoside supplementation in male subjects during resistance training: a randomized controlled pilot study. J Sport Health Sci. 2016;5(2):176–82.
Warber JP, Tharion WJ, Patton JF, Champagne CM, Mitotti P, Lieberman HR. The effect of creatine monohydrate supplementation on obstacle course and multiple bench press performance. J Strength Cond Res. 2002;16(4):500–8.
Wax B, Kavazis AN, Weldon K, Sperlak J. Effects of supplemental citrulline malate ingestion during repeated bouts of lower-body exercise in advanced weightlifters. J Strength Cond Res. 2015;29(3):786–92.
Wernbom M, Augustsson J, Thomeé R. Effects of vascular occlusion on muscular endurance in dynamic knee extension exercise at different submaximal loads. J Strength Cond Res. 2006;20(2):372–7.
Wernbom M, Järrebring R, Andreasson MA, Augustsson J. Acute effects of blood flow restriction on muscle activity and endurance during fatiguing dynamic knee extensions at low load. J Strength Cond Res. 2009;23(8):2389–95.
Wilk M, Stastny P, Golas A, Nawrocka M, Jelen K, Zajac A, et al. Physiological responses to different neuromuscular movement task during eccentric bench press. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2018;39(1):26–32.
Wilk M, Krzysztofik M, Filip A, Zajac A, Del Coso J. The effects of high doses of caffeine on maximal strength and muscular endurance in athletes habituated to caffeine. Nutrients. 2019;11(8):1912.
Wilk M, Krzysztofik M, Maszczyk A, Chycki J, Zajac A. The acute effects of caffeine intake on time under tension and power generated during the bench press movement. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2019;16(1):8.
Wilk M, Krzysztofik M, Filip A, Lockie RG, Zajac A. The acute effects of external compression with blood flow restriction on maximal strength and strength-endurance performance of the upper limbs. Front Physiol. 2020;11:567.
Wilk M, Krzysztofik M, Petr M, Zajac A, Stastny P. The slow exercise tempo during conventional squat elicits higher glycolytic and muscle damage but not the endocrine response. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2021;41(6):301–7.
Williams MH, Jackson CW. Specificity of training related to muscular endurance. Am Correct Ther J. 1977;31(1):3–8.
Williams TD, Martin MP, Mintz JA, Rogers RR, Ballmann CG. Effect of acute beetroot juice supplementation on bench press power, velocity, and repetition volume. J Strength Cond Res. 2020;34(4):924–8.
Williams TD, Langley HN, Roberson CC, Rogers RR, Ballmann CG. Effects of short-term golden root extract (Rhodiola rosea) supplementation on resistance exercise performance. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(13):6953.
Winchester LJ, Morris CE, Badinger J, Wiczynski TL, VanWye WR. Blood flow restriction at high resistance loads increases the rate of muscular fatigue, but does not increase plasma markers of myotrauma or inflammation. J Strength Cond Res. 2020;34(9):2419–26.
Yamane M, Ohnishi N, Matsumoto T. Does regular post-exercise cold application attenuate trained muscle adaptation? Int J Sports Med. 2015;36(8):647–53.
Yarrow JF, Parr JJ, White LJ, Borsa PA, Stevens BR. The effects of short-term alpha-ketoisocaproic acid supplementation on exercise performance: a randomized controlled trial. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2007;4:2.
Zourdos MC, Goldsmith JA, Helms ER, Trepeck C, Halle JL, Mendez KM, et al. Proximity to failure and total repetitions performed in a set influences accuracy of intraset repetitions in reserve-based rating of perceived exertion. J Strength Cond Res. 2021;35(Suppl. 1):S158–65.
Zuo C, Bo S, Wang T, Zhang W. Functional and traditional resistance training are equally effective in increasing upper and lower limb muscular endurance and performance variables in untrained young men. Front Physiol. 2022;13: 868195.
Zuo C, Bo S, Li Q, Zhang L. The effect of whole-body traditional and functional resistance training on CAVI and its association with muscular fitness in untrained young men. Front Physiol. 2022;13: 888048.
Steele J, Fisher JP, Smith D, Schoenfeld BJ, Yang Y, Nakagawa S. Meta-analysis of variation in sport and exercise science: examples of application within resistance training research. SportRxiv. 2022.
Cherouveim ED, Margaritelis NV, Koulouvaris P, Tsolakis C, Malliou VJ, Chatzinikolaou PN, et al. Skeletal muscle and cerebral oxygenation levels during and after submaximal concentric and eccentric isokinetic exercise. J Sports Sci. 2022;40(2):195–202.
Steele J, Fisher JP, Giessing J, Androulakis-Korakakis P, Wolf M, Kroeske B, et al. Long-term time-course of strength adaptation to minimal dose resistance training through retrospective longitudinal growth modeling. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2022;Online ahead of print.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Funding
Open Access funding enabled and organized by CAUL and its Member Institutions. Matheus D. Pinto received a PhD scholarship from the Australian Government Research Training Program.
Conflicts of Interest
James L. Nuzzo and Matheus D. Pinto were previously employed at Vitruvian, a company that designs and sells resistance exercise equipment. Kazunori Nosaka and James Steele have no conflicts of interest that are directly relevant to the content of this article.
Ethics Approval
Not applicable.
Consent to Participate
Not applicable.
Consent for Publication
Not applicable.
Availability of Data and Material
The extracted data, and the code used to analyze that data, are available as supplementary materials at the Open Science Framework (https://osf.io/s94gf/).
Code Availability
Not applicable.
Authors’ Contributions
JLN conceived of the idea for the manuscript, conducted the literature search, extracted the data, and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. JS conducted the statistical analysis and created the tables and figures. MDP, KN, and JS provided conceptual feedback throughout the research process. All authors read and revised multiple drafts of the original manuscript. All authors approved of the final version of the manuscript.
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
About this article
Cite this article
Nuzzo, J.L., Pinto, M.D., Nosaka, K. et al. Maximal Number of Repetitions at Percentages of the One Repetition Maximum: A Meta-Regression and Moderator Analysis of Sex, Age, Training Status, and Exercise. Sports Med 54, 303–321 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-023-01937-7
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-023-01937-7