Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Safflower seed production in semi-arid regions and greenhouse gas emissions

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The cultivation of safflower for biofuel production can help to reduce dependence on fossil fuels and promote sustainable agriculture, particularly in semi-arid regions where water resources are limited or where other crops are not well-suited to the local climate and soil conditions. This study applied the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology to quantify the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with the farming of safflower seeds at an experimental plot located in Northeast Brazil (semi-arid region). The functional unit considered herein is the production of safflower seeds at a 5000 m2 area, considering one crop cycle (82 days). Simapro software was used, following ISO 14040 and ISO 14044, using the Ecoinvent database and environmental impact assessment method IPCC 2021 GWP 100y. The attributional LCA encompassed soil preparation, fertilization, irrigation, and harvesting. The GHG emissions associated with safflower seed production were 578.49 kg CO2-eq, and considering the productivity of 1185 kg of seeds, the specific emissions were 0.4882 kg CO2-eq/kg of safflower seed harvested. The highest emissions were associated with the preparation of soil (322.8 kg CO2-eq), followed by water consumption (115.52 kg CO2-eq), fertilization (109.16 kg CO2-eq), the harvest of seeds (23.52 kg CO2-eq), and finally the material composition of the irrigation system (7.50 kg CO2-eq). It was verified that tackling the GHG emissions associated with soil preparation and fertilization should be the focus of future research efforts to further reduce the emissions and increase the environmental competitiveness of safflower seeds as biofuel feedstock.

Graphical abstract

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abrahão R, Carvalho M, Causapé J (2017) Carbon and water footprints of irrigated corn and non-irrigated wheat in Northeast Spain. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24:5647–5653

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abrahão R, Carvalho M, Causapé J (2021) Greenhouse gas emissions associated with four types of fertilization for corn crops in a Mediterranean basin. Environ Prog Sustain Energy 40(5):e13681

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmad A, Zoli M, Latella C, Bacenetti J (2023) Rice cultivation and processing: highlights from a life cycle thinking perspective. Sci Total Environ 871:162079

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carvalho M, Da Silva ES, Andersen SL, Abrahão R (2016) Life cycle assessment of the transesterification double step process for biodiesel production from refined soybean oil in Brazil. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23:11025–11033

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cerri CEP, You X, Cherubin MR, Moreira CS, Raucci GS, Castigioni BDA, Alves PA, CErri Mello DGPFFC, Cerri CC (2017) Assessing the greenhouse gas emissions of Brazilian soybean biodiesel production. PLoS ONE 12(5):e0176948

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dekamin M, Barmaki M, Kanooni A, Meshkini SRM (2018) Cradle to farm gate life cycle assessment of oilseed crops production in Iran. Eng AgricEnviron Food 11(4):178–185

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Esteves EMM, Esteves VPP, Bungenstab DJ, Araújo ODQF, Morgado CDRV (2018) Greenhouse gas emissions related to biodiesel from traditional soybean farming compared to integrated crop-livestock systems. J Clean Prod 179:81–92

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • García-Velásquez C, Defryn C, van der Meer Y (2023) Life cycle optimization of the supply chain for biobased chemicals with local biomass resources. Sustain Prod Consum 36:540–551

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gecgel U, Demirci M, Esendal E, Tasan M (2007) Fatty acid composition of the oil from developing seeds of different varieties of safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.). J Am Oil Chem Soc 84:47–54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11746-006-1007-3

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gupta R, McRoberts R, Yu Z, Smith C, Sloan W, You S (2022) Life cycle assessment of biodiesel production from rapeseed oil: influence of process parameters and scale. Biores Technol 360:127532

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hosseinzadeh-Bandbafha H, Nazemi F, Khounani Z, Ghanavati H, Shafiei M, Karimi K, Lam SS, Aghbasho M, Tabatabaei M (2022) Safflower-based biorefinery producing a broad spectrum of biofuels and biochemicals: a life cycle assessment perspective. Sci Total Environ 802:149842

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Isler-Kaya A, Karaosmanoglu F (2022) Life cycle assessment of safflower and sugar beet molasses-based biofuels. Renew Energy 201:1127–1138

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jez S, Spinelli D, Fierro A, Dibenedetto A, Aresta M, Busi E, Basosi R (2017) Comparative life cycle assessment study on environmental impact of oil production from micro-algae and terrestrial oilseed crops. Biores Technol 239:266–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2017.05.027

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kadirvel P, Veerraju C, Senthilvel S, Yadav P, Kiran BU, Shaik M, Shaw R, Selvaraj VM, Reddy YR, Mohanrao MD, Mukta N (2020) Marker-assisted selection for fast-track breeding of high oleic lines in safflower (Carthamus tinctorious L.). Ind Crops Prod 158:112983. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2020.112983

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khribich A, Kacem RH, Dakhlaoui A (2021) Causality nexus of renewable energy consumption and social development: evidence from high-income countries. Renew Energy 169:14–22

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lenz NBG, lenz ML, Silva RF, Santos RF (2016) Irrigação e adubação nitrogenada: revisão sistemática. Acta Iguazu 5:273–280

    Google Scholar 

  • Liang W, Wang G, Xu R, Ning X, Zhang J, Guo X, Wang C (2023) Life cycle assessment of blast furnace ironmaking processes: a comparison of fossil fuels and biomass hydrochar applications. Fuel 345:128138

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liu C, Cutforth H, Chai Q, Gan Y (2016) Farming tactics to reduce the carbon footprint of crop cultivation in semiarid areas. Review Agron Sustain Dev 36:1–16

    Google Scholar 

  • MacWilliam S, Sanscartier D, Lemke R, Wismer M, Baron V (2016) Environmental benefits of canola production in 2010 compared to 1990: a life cycle perspective. Agrícola Sist 145:106–115

    Google Scholar 

  • Moeller D, Sieverding HL, Stone JJ (2017) Comparative farm-gate life cycle assessment of oilseed feedstocks in the Northern great plains. BioPhys Econ Resour Quality 2:1–16

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Monte DM, Cruz PL, Dufour J (2022) SAF production from cameline oil hydrotreatment: a technoeconomic assessment of alternative process configurations. Fuel 324:124602

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mousavi-Avval SH, Rafiee S, Sharifi M, Hosseinpour S, Notarnicola B, Tassielli G, Renzulli PA (2017) Application of multi-objective genetic algorithms for optimization of energy, economics and environmental life cycle assessment in oilseed production. J Clean Prod 140:804–815

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Neves TI, Uyeda CA, Carvalho M, Abrahão R (2018) Environmental evaluation of the life cycle of elephant grass fertilization—Cenchrus purpureus (Schumach.) Morrone—using chemical fertilization and biosolids. Environ Monit Assess 190:1–8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oliveira CVK, Santos RF, Siqueira JAC, Bariccatti RA, Lenz NBG, Cruz GS, Tokura LK, Klajn FF (2018) Chemical characterization of oil and biodiesel from four safflower genotypes. Ind Crops Prod 123:192–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2018.06.035

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ouikhalfan M, Lakbita O, Delhali A, Assen AH, Belmabkhout Y (2022) Toward net-zero emission fertilizers industry: greenhouse gas emission analyses and decarbonization solutions. Energy Fuels 36(8):4198–4223

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pica NE, Carlson K, Steiner JJ, Waskom R (2017) Produced water reuse for irrigation of non-food biofuel crops: effects on switchgrass and rapeseed germination, physiology and biomass yield. Ind Crops and Prod 2017(100):65–76

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rastgou B, Ebadi A, Vafaie A, Moghadam SH (2013) The effects of nitrogen fertilizer on nutrient uptake, physiological traits and yield components of safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.). Int J Agron Plant Prod 4:335–364

    Google Scholar 

  • Santos RF, Silva MA (2015) Carthamus tinctorius L.: Uma alternativa de cultivo para o Brasil. Acta Iguazu, Cascavel 4:26–35

    Google Scholar 

  • Santos RF, Bassegio D, Sartori MMP, Zannoto MD, Silva MA (2018) Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) yield as affected by nitrogen fertilization and different water regimes. Acta Agronómica. https://doi.org/10.15446/acag.v67n2.60896

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shrestha BM, Desjardins RL, McConkey BG, Worth DE, Dyer JA, Cerkowniak DD (2014) Change in carbon footprint of canola production in the Canadian prairies from 1986 to 2006. Renew Energy 63:634–641

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Silva WKM, Neves TI, de Souza Silva C, Carvalho M, Abrahão R (2020) Sustainable enhancement of sugarcane fertilization for energy purposes in hot climates. Renew Energy 159:547–552

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silva RAD, da Silva Filho EM, Costa M, Gracindo ÂPAC, de Aquino Pessoa PM, Gondim AD, Lichston JE (2021) Oil quality and yield of different Carthamus tinctorius cultivars: promising oilseeds for biodiesel in semi-arid regions. J Am Oil Chem Soc 98(3):241–251

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tamburini D (2019) Investigating Asian colourants in Chinese textiles from Dunhuang (7th–10th century AD) by high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry—towards the creation of a mass spectra database. Dye Pigment 163:454–474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dyepig.2018.12.025

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ukaew S, Shi R, Lee JH, Archer DW, Pearlson M, Lewis KC, Bregni L, Shonnard DR (2016) Full chain life cycle assessment of greenhouse gases and energy demand for canola-derived jet fuel in North Dakota, United States. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 4(5):2771–2779

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wu Z, Zhai H (2021) Consumptive life cycle water use of biomass-to-power plants with carbon capture and sequestration. Appl Energy 303:117702

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Xu B, Zhang L, Ma F, Zhang W, Wang X, Zhang Q, Luo D, Ma H, Li P (2018) Determination of free steroidal compounds in vegetable oils by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled to time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Food Chem 245:415–425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.10.114

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Xu H, Ou L, Li Y, Hawkins TR, Wang M (2022) Life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of biodiesel and renewable diesel production in the United States. Environ Sci Technol 56(12):7512–7521

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yadav GS, Das A, Lal R, Babu S, Datta M, Meena RS, Singh R (2019) Impact of no-till and mulching on soil carbon sequestration under rice (Oryza sativa L.)-rapeseed (Brassica campestris L. var. rapeseed) cropping system in hilly agro-ecosystem of the Eastern Himalayas, India. Agric Ecosyst Environ 275:81–92

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yang Q, Mašek O, Zhao L, Nan H, Yu S, Yin J, Cao X (2021) Country-level potential of carbon sequestration and environmental benefits by utilizing crop residues for biochar implementation. Applied Energy 282:116275

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yu Z, Ma H, Liu X, Wang M, Wang J (2022) Review in life cycle assessment of biomass conversion through pyrolysis-issues and recommendations. Green Chem Eng 3:304–312

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ABNT NBR ISO 14040 (2009a) Versão Corrigida: 2014 Gestão ambiental - Avaliação do ciclo de vida - Princípios e estrutura. Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas (ABNT)

  • ABNT NBR ISO 14044 (2009b) Versão Corrigida: 2014 Gestão ambiental - Avaliação do ciclo de vida - Princípios e estrutura. Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas (ABNT)

  • Ecoinvent 3.8 (2021) Database. Available at https://www.ecoinvent.org/

  • FAO, (2022) Food and Agriculture organization of Uniter Nation. Disponível em: http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC Acesso em: 27 de março de 2022.

  • Galant NB, Santos RF, Kaiser F, Nunes MD, Lewandoski CF (2016) irrigação e adubação nitrogenada em cultivo de cártamo. Anais 10° Seagro, Cascavel.

  • HALL III, C. (2016) Overview of the oilseed Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.). North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, USA. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100596-5.00030-5

  • IPCC-Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2021). Sixth Assessment Report (AR6), Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Cambridge University Press, NY, USA

  • IPCC, Intergovernmental Panel on climate change (2021). Printed October by the IPCC, Switzerland. Electronic copies of this Summary for Policymakers are available from the IPCC website www.ipcc.ch ISBN 978-92-9169-158-6

  • ISO 14040. (2006a) Environmental management—Life cycle assessment—Principles and framework. International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Geneva

  • ISO 14044. (2006b) Environmental management—Life cycle assessment—Requirements and guidelines. International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Geneva

  • Kongshaug G (1998) Energy Consumption and Greenhouse Gas Emission in Fertilizer Production IFA Technical Conference, Marrakech, Morocco, 28 September-1 October, pp. 18–24.

  • Pré-Sustainability (2021) . Software Simapro 9.3.0.2. Available at

  • Saavedra JF, Vargas OR (2021) Estimación del impacto ambiental del cultivo de caña de azúcar utilizando la metodología del análisis del ciclo de vida (Acv). Revista de Ingeniería.

  • Soares PG (2018) Esquema de redução de emissões da Aviação Civil Internacional (CORSIA/ICO): desafios e oportunidades. / Pedro Soares; Mariano Colini Cenamo. São Paulo: IDESAM, p. 32.

Download references

Funding

The authors thank the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq, productivity grant 309452/2021-0), and Foundation for the Support of Research in the State of Paraíba-FAPESQ-PB. We also thank the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (Brazilian Government) for funding this scientific research.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Graduate Program in Development and Environment – PRODEMA, Federal University of Paraíba, João Pessoa, Brazil

    R. A. D. da Silva

  2. Department of Food Technology, Federal University of Paraíba, João Pessoa, Brazil

    N. dos Santos Albuquerque

  3. Department of Bothanics and Zoology, Federal University of Rio Grande Do Norte, Natal, Brazil

    J. E. Lichston

  4. Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio Grande Do Norte, Natal, Brazil

    A. D. Gondim

  5. Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Rio Grande Do Norte, Campus Apodi, Natal, Brazil

    W. B. de Magalhães & A. G. Coelho

  6. French Associates Institute for Agriculture and Biotechnology of Drylands, Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Be’er Sheva, Israel

    S. Rachmilevitch

  7. Department of Renewable Energy Engineering, Federal University of Paraíba, João Pessoa, Brazil

    M. Carvalho

Authors
  1. R. A. D. da Silva
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. N. dos Santos Albuquerque
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. J. E. Lichston
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. A. D. Gondim
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. W. B. de Magalhães
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. A. G. Coelho
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. S. Rachmilevitch
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. M. Carvalho
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

All authors contributed to the study conception, Material preparation and data collection were performed by RADS. Design and Analysis was carried out by MC. The first draft of the manuscript was written by RADS and MC, and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to M. Carvalho.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Additional information

Editorial responsibility: Samareh Mirkia.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

da Silva, R.A.D., dos Santos Albuquerque, N., Lichston, J.E. et al. Safflower seed production in semi-arid regions and greenhouse gas emissions. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-024-05660-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-024-05660-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation