Abstract
Plastics and their degradation products, microplastics (MPs), are ubiquitous in the environment, and urban and industrial soils may be the most polluted soils by this type of pollution. There is scarce information addressing human exposure to MPs from urban and industrial soils. This study assesses MP pollution in urban and industrial soils of two county capital cities in Iran, i.e. Abadan and Khorramshahr. The concentration of MPs ranged from 17 MPs/100 g industrial soil to 347 MPs/100 g urban soil, with a mean abundance of 122 MPs/100 g soil. Residential areas were the most contaminated by MPs among all the sampling sites. There, microfiber MPs, red and black, were the most abundant MPs, and it was also the case across sampling sites. Polyethylene terephthalate and polypropylene were the most common polymers among the investigated MPs, while nylon and polystyrene MPs were also present. Regarding MP sizes, those in the fraction 250–500 µm prevailed across all investigated sites. Estimated exposures to MPs through contact with the urban and industrial soils, for a normal scenario according to US EPA parameters, would lead to a daily intake < 1 MP for both adult and children, and their respective yearly intake of MPs is estimated in 6–127 and 12–253 MPs. Further research is needed to assess the health impact of current MP types and levels found in urban soil.
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13762-022-04223-7/MediaObjects/13762_2022_4223_Fig1_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13762-022-04223-7/MediaObjects/13762_2022_4223_Fig2_HTML.jpg)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13762-022-04223-7/MediaObjects/13762_2022_4223_Fig3_HTML.jpg)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13762-022-04223-7/MediaObjects/13762_2022_4223_Fig4_HTML.png)
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The datasets analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
References
Abbasi S, Keshavarzi B, Moore F et al (2017) Investigation of microrubbers, microplastics and heavy metals in street dust: a study in Bushehr city. Iran Environ Earth Sci 76:798. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-017-7137-0
Abbasi S, Keshavarzi B, Moore F et al (2018) Distribution and potential health impacts of microplastics and microrubbers in air and street dusts from Asaluyeh County Iran. Environ Pollut. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.10.039
Ashton K, Holmes L, Turner A (2010) Association of metals with plastic production pellets in the marine environment. Mar Pollut Bull 60:2050–2055. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2010.07.014
Auta HS, Emenike CU, Jayanthi B, Fauziah SH (2018) Growth kinetics and biodeterioration of polypropylene microplastics by Bacillus sp. and Rhodococcus sp. isolated from mangrove sediment. Mar Pollut Bull 127:15–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.11.036
Bhattacharya P, Lin S, Turner JP, Ke PC (2010) Physical adsorption of charged plastic nanoparticles affects algal photosynthesis. J Phys Chem C 114:16556–16561. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp1054759
Bläsing M, Amelung W (2018) Plastics in soil: analytical methods and possible sources. Sci Total Environ 612:422–435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.08.086
Bolgar M, Hubball J, Groeger J, Meronek S (2015) Handbook for the chemical analysis of plastic and polymer additives. CRC Press
Braga Moruzzi R, Galileu Speranza L, da Conceição F et al (2020) Stormwater detention reservoirs: an opportunity for monitoring and a potential site to prevent the spread of urban microplastics. Water. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12071994
Brennecke D, Ferreira EC, Costa TMM et al (2015) Ingested microplastics (> 100μm) are translocated to organs of the tropical fiddler crab Uca rapax. Mar Pollut Bull 96:491–495. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.05.001
Carbery M, O’Connor W, Palanisami T (2018) Trophic transfer of microplastics and mixed contaminants in the marine food web and implications for human health. Environ Int 115:400–409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2018.03.007
Chamas A, Moon H, Zheng J et al (2020) Degradation rates of plastics in the environment. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 8:3494–3511. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.9b06635
Chang X, Xue Y, Li J et al (2019) Potential health impact of environmental micro - and nanoplastics pollution. J Appl Toxicol 40:4–15. https://doi.org/10.1002/jat.3915
Choy CA, Robison BH, Gagne TO et al (2019) The vertical distribution and biological transport of marine microplastics across the epipelagic and mesopelagic water column. Sci Rep 9:7843. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-44117-2
Cole M, Lindeque P, Halsband C, Galloway TS (2011) Microplastics as contaminants in the marine environment: a review. Mar Pollut Bull 62:2588–2597. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.09.025
Dehghani S, Moore F, Keshavarzi B, Beverley AH (2017) Health risk implications of potentially toxic metals in street dust and surface soil of Tehran. Iran Ecotox Env Saf. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2016.10.037
Derraik JGB (2002) The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review. Mar Pollut Bull 44:842–852. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0025-326X(02)00220-5
Di M, Wang J (2018) Science of the total environment microplastics in surface waters and sediments of the three gorges. Sci Total Environ 616–617:1620–1627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.10.150
Driedger AGJ, Dürr HH, Mitchell K, Van Cappellen P (2015) Plastic debris in the Laurentian Great Lakes: a review. J Great Lakes Res 41:9–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jglr.2014.12.020
Dris R, Gasperi J, Mirande C et al (2016) A first overview of textile fibers, including microplastics, in indoor and outdoor environments. Environ Pollut. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.12.013
Dris R, Gasperi J, Mirande C et al (2017) A first overview of textile fibers, including microplastics, in indoor and outdoor environments. Environ Pollut 221:453–458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.12.013
Dubaish F, Liebezeit G (2013) Suspended microplastics and black carbon particles in the jade system, southern North Sea. Water Air Soil Pollut. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-012-1352-9
Ebrahimi P, Abbasi S, Pashaei R et al (2022) Chemosphere Investigating impact of physicochemical properties of microplastics on human health: a short bibliometric analysis and review. Chemosphere 289:133146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.133146
Endo S, Takizawa R, Okuda K et al (2005) Concentration of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in beached resin pellets: variability among individual particles and regional differences. Mar Pollut Bull 50:1103–1114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2005.04.030
Ensign LM, Cone R, Hanes J (2012) Oral drug delivery with polymeric nanoparticles: the gastrointestinal mucus barriers. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 64:557–570. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addr.2011.12.009
Frias JPGL, Nash R (2019) Microplastics: finding a consensus on the definition. Mar Pollut Bull 138:145–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.11.022
Frias JPGL, Sobral P, Ferreira AM (2010) Organic pollutants in microplastics from two beaches of the Portuguese coast. Mar Pollut Bull 60:1988–1992. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2010.07.030
Fuller S, Gautam A (2016) A procedure for measuring microplastics using pressurized fluid extraction. Environ Sci Technol 50:5774–5780. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b00816
Gabet EJ, Reichman OJ, Seabloom EW (2003) The effects of bioturbation on soil processes and sediment transport. Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci 31:249–273. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.31.100901.141314
Galloway TS (2015) Micro- and nano-plastics and human health. In: Bergmann M, Gutow L, Klages M (eds) Marine anthropogenic litter. Springer, Cham, pp 343–366
Galloway TS, Lewis CN (2016) Marine microplastics spell big problems for future generations. Proc Natl Acad Sci 113:2331–2333. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1600715113
Geyer R, Jambeck JR, Law KL (2017) Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made. Sci Adv. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1700782
Ghavidel Rahimi Y, Ahmadi M (2015) Statistical analysis and temporal trend of annual maximum temperatures of Abadan in Southwestern of Iran. Arab J Geosci 8:8219–8228. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-014-1760-9
Guo JJ, Huang XP, Xiang L et al (2020) Source, migration and toxicology of microplastics in soil. Environ Int 137:105263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.105263
Haider TP, Völker C, Kramm J et al (2019) Plastics of the future? the impact of biodegradable polymers on the environment and on society. Angew Chem Int Ed 58:50–62. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201805766
Harris S, Harper BL (2004) Exposure scenario for CTUIR traditional subsistence lifeways. Dep Sci Eng Confed Tribes Umatilla Indian Reserv PO Box 638 Pendleton OR 97801:1–21
Hong J, Wang Y, McDermott S et al (2016) The use of a physiologically-based extraction test to assess relationships between bioaccessible metals in urban soil and neurodevelopmental conditions in children. Environ Pollut 212:9–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.01.001
Horton AA, Svendsen C, Williams RJ et al (2017) Large microplastic particles in sediments of tributaries of the River Thames, UK – abundance, sources and methods for effective quantification. Mar Pollut Bull 114:218–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.09.004
Huerta Lwanga E, Mendoza Vega J, Ku Quej V et al (2017) Field evidence for transfer of plastic debris along a terrestrial food chain. Sci Rep 7:14071. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14588-2
Imhof HK, Laforsch C, Wiesheu AC et al (2016) Pigments and plastic in limnetic ecosystems: a qualitative and quantitative study on microparticles of different size classes. Water Res 98:64–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2016.03.015
Ioakeimidis C, Fotopoulou KN, Karapanagioti HK et al (2016) The degradation potential of PET bottles in the marine environment: an ATR-FTIR based approach. Sci Rep 6:23501. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep23501
Ivar DS, Julian A, Costa MF (2014) The present and future of microplastic pollution in the marine environment. Environ Pollut 185:352–364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2013.10.036
Karapanagioti HK, Klontza I (2008) Testing phenanthrene distribution properties of virgin plastic pellets and plastic eroded pellets found on Lesvos island beaches (Greece). Mar Environ Res 65:283–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marenvres.2007.11.005
Klein S, Worch E, Knepper TP (2015) Occurrence and spatial distribution of microplastics in river shore sediments of the rhine-main area in Germany. Environ Sci Technol 49:6070–6076. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b00492
Kniggendorf A-K, Wetzel C, Roth B (2019) Microplastics detection in streaming tap water with raman spectroscopy. Sensors. https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081839
Liu M, Lu S, Song Y et al (2018) Microplastic and mesoplastic pollution in farmland soils in suburbs of Shanghai, China. Environ Pollut 242:855–862. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.07.051
Mateos-Cárdenas A, O’Halloran J, van Pelt FNAM, Jansen MAK (2020) Rapid fragmentation of microplastics by the freshwater amphipod Gammarus duebeni (Lillj.). Sci Rep 10:12799. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-69635-2
Mathalon A, Hill P (2014) Microplastic fibers in the intertidal ecosystem surrounding Halifax harbor, Nova Scotia. Mar Pollut Bull 81:69–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.02.018
Mokhtarzadeh Z, Keshavarzi B, Moore F et al (2020) Potentially toxic elements in the middle east oldest oil refinery zone soils: source apportionment, speciation, bioaccessibility and human health risk assessment. Environ Sci Pollut Res. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-09895-7
Momtazan M, Geravandi S, Rastegarimehr B et al (2019) An investigation of particulate matter and relevant cardiovascular risks in Abadan and Khorramshahr in 2014–2016. Toxin Rev 38:290–297. https://doi.org/10.1080/15569543.2018.1463266
Nel HA, Dalu T, Wasserman RJ (2018) Sinks and sources: Assessing microplastic abundance in river sediment and deposit feeders in an Austral temperate urban river system. Sci Total Environ 612:950–956. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.08.298
Nematollahi MJ, Moore F, Keshavarzi B et al (2020) Microplastic particles in sediments and waters, south of Caspian Sea: frequency, distribution, characteristics, and chemical composition. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 206:111137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.111137
Oßmann BE, Sarau G, Holtmannspötter H et al (2018) Small-sized microplastics and pigmented particles in bottled mineral water. Water Res 141:307–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2018.05.027
O’Connor JD, Murphy S, Lally HT et al (2020) Microplastics in brown trout (Salmo trutta Linnaeus, 1758) from an Irish riverine system. Environ Pollut 267:115572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115572
Padoan E, Romè C, Ajmone-Marsan F (2017) Bioaccessibility and size distribution of metals in road dust and roadside soils along a peri-urban transect. Sci Total Environ 601–602:89–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.05.180
Pan Z, Liu Q, Sun Y et al (2019) Environmental implications of microplastic pollution in the Northwestern Pacific Ocean. Mar Pollut Bull 146:215–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.06.031
PlasticsEurope (2016) Plastics – the facts 2016-an analysis of european plastics production, demand and waste data. In: EPRO PlasticsEurope, Brussels, Belgium https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.01.015
Prata JC, da Costa JP, Lopes I et al (2020) Environmental exposure to microplastics: an overview on possible human health effects. Sci Total Environ 702:134455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134455
Rillig MC (2012) Microplastic in terrestrial ecosystems and the soil? Environ Sci Technol 46:6453–6454. https://doi.org/10.1021/es302011r
Rillig MC, Ingraffia R, de Souza Machado AA (2017) Microplastic incorporation into soil in agroecosystems. Front Plant Sci. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2017.01805
Roes L, Patel MK, Worrell E, Ludwig C (2012) Preliminary evaluation of risks related to waste incineration of polymer nanocomposites. Sci Total Environ 417–418:76–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.12.030
Rolsky C, Kelkar V, Driver E, Halden RU (2020) Municipal sewage sludge as a source of microplastics in the environment. Curr Opin Environ Sci Health 14:16–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coesh.2019.12.001
Rothen-Rutishauser BM, Schürch S, Haenni B et al (2006) Interaction of fine particles and nanoparticles with red blood cells visualized with advanced microscopic techniques. Environ Sci Technol 40:4353–4359. https://doi.org/10.1021/es0522635
Scheurer M, Bigalke M (2018) microplastics in swiss floodplain soils. Environ Sci Technol 52:3591–3598. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b06003
Schymanski D, Goldbeck C, Humpf HU, Fürst P (2018) Analysis of microplastics in water by micro-Raman spectroscopy: release of plastic particles from different packaging into mineral water. Water Res 129:154–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2017.11.011
Science Communication Unit U of the W of E (2013) Science for environment policy in-depth report: soil contamination: impacts on human health. Bristol, UK, European Commission DG Environment
Smith M, Love DC, Rochman CM, Neff RA (2018) Microplastics in seafood and the implications for human health. Curr Envir Health Rpt 5:375–386
Sommer F, Dietze V, Baum A et al (2018) Tire abrasion as a major source of microplastics in the environment. Aerosol Air Qual Res 18:2014–2028. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.2018.03.0099
Steinmetz Z, Wollmann C, Schaefer M et al (2016) Plastic mulching in agriculture. trading short-term agronomic benefits for long-term soil degradation. Sci Total Environ 550:690–705
Taghizadeh Rahmat Abadi Z, Abtahi B, Grossart H-P, Khodabandeh S (2021) Microplastic content of Kutum fish, Rutilus frisii kutum in the southern Caspian Sea. Sci Total Environ 752:141542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141542
Thompson RC, Olsen Y, Mitchell RP et al (2004) Lost at sea: where is all the plastic? Science 304:838. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1094559
Tiwari M, Rathod TD, Ajmal PY et al (2019) Distribution and characterization of microplastics in beach sand from three different Indian coastal environments. Mar Pollut Bull 140:262–273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.01.055
US Environmental Protection Agency (2011) Exposure factors handbook 2011 Edition (Final), EPA/600/R-09/052F
van den Berg P, Huerta-Lwanga E, Corradini F, Geissen V (2020) Sewage sludge application as a vehicle for microplastics in eastern Spanish agricultural soils. Environ Pollut 261:114198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114198
Wagner M, Lambert S (2018) Freshwater microplastics. Springer, Cham
Wagner M, Scherer C, Alvarez-Muñoz D et al (2014) Microplastics in freshwater ecosystems: what we know and what we need to know. Environ Sci Eur 26:12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-014-0012-7
Waters CN, Zalasiewicz J, Summerhayes C et al (2016) The anthropocene is functionally and stratigraphically distinct from the holocene. Science 351:6269. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aad2622
Webb HK, Arnott J, Crawford RJ, Ivanova EP (2013) Plastic degradation and its environmental implications with special reference to poly(ethylene terephthalate). Polymers (basel) 5:1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym5010001
Wright SL, Kelly FJ (2017) Plastic and human health: a micro issue? Environ Sci Technol. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b00423
Wuana RA, Okieimen FE (2011) Heavy metals in contaminated soils: a review of sources, chemistry, risks and best available strategies for remediation. ISRN Ecol 2011:1–20. https://doi.org/10.5402/2011/402647
Yao Y, Glamoclija M, Murphy A, Gao Y (2021) Characterization of microplastics in indoor and ambient air in northern New Jersey. Environ Res 207:112142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2021.112142
Yuan F, Zhao H, Sun H et al (2022) Investigation of microplastics in sludge from five wastewater treatment plants in Nanjing. China J Environ Manag 301:113793. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.113793
Zhang S, Yang X, Gertsen H et al (2018) Science of the total environment a simple method for the extraction and identification of light density microplastics from soil. Sci Total Environ 616–617:1056–1065. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.10.213
Zhou Q, Zhang H, Zhou Y et al (2016) Separation of microplastics from a coastal soil and their surface microscopic features. Kexue Tongbao/chinese Sci Bull 61:1604–1611. https://doi.org/10.1360/N972015-01098
Zhou Q, Zhang H, Fu C et al (2018) The distribution and morphology of microplastics in coastal soils adjacent to the Bohai Sea and the Yellow Sea. Geoderma 322:201–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2018.02.015
Zhu F, Zhu C, Wang C, Gu C (2019) Occurrence and Ecological Impacts of Microplastics in Soil Systems: a Review. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 102:741–749. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-019-02623-z
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the help of Shiraz University Medical Geology Research Centre and Shiraz University research committee for analytical and logistic assistance.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the study conception and design. BK designed the research. Sample preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by ZM. The first draft of the manuscript was written by ZM, and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Editorial responsibility: Samareh Mirkia.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Mokhtarzadeh, Z., Keshavarzi, B., Moore, F. et al. Microplastics in industrial and urban areas in South-West Iran. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 19, 10199–10210 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-022-04223-7
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-022-04223-7