Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Characterizing quality of frass produced by black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae after treating water hyacinth and fruit wastes in various proportions

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Globally, inefficient waste management is viewed as a social, environmental, and economic threat. Black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) waste treatment is a promising strategy for efficient waste management that offers a continuous supply of organic fertilizer. However, no thorough investigations have looked into the frass produced during the processing of water hyacinth and fruit waste as a fertilizer. In this study, BSFL processed experimental water hyacinth and fruit waste at various ratios for a total of 20 days of experimentation, first processing 8 kg of waste per treatment (T1, T2, T3, T4, and T5) for 14 days, and then adding 6 kg of waste per treatment for the following 6 days. The physicochemical composition of the frass produced by BSFL composting water hyacinth and fruit waste was examined to determine its fertilizer value. The results indicated that the moisture content of the frass ranged from 41.4 to 60%, while the pH, electrical conductivity, and carbon to nitrogen ratio ranged from 6.02 to 8.09, 4.00 to 6.34 ds/m, and 14.94 to 29.65, respectively. The micro-mineral content of the frass is within the acceptable ranges suggested by various organizations, with organic carbon ranging from 23.5 to 29.13%, total nitrogen from 0.79 to 1.95%, phosphorus from 0.18 to 0.42 mg/kg, potassium from 0.19 to 2.62%, calcium from 0.14 to 0.03%, and magnesium from 0.07 to 0.19% making the frass suitable for agricultural use. Similarly, the micro-mineral contents (Fe, Zn, Cu, and Mn) of the frass are within acceptable ranges for use as organic fertilizer.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article and its supplementary materials. This article includes all the study’s data and any relevant supporting materials.

References

  1. Gupta R, Mutiyar PK, Rawat NK, Saini MS, Garg VK (2007) Development of a water hyacinth based vermireactor using an epigeic earthworm Eisenia foetida. Biores Technol 98(13):2605–2610

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Gezie A, Assefa WW, Getnet B, Anteneh W, Dejen E, Mereta ST (2018) Potential impacts of water hyacinth invasion and management on water quality and human health in Lake Tana watershed, Northwest Ethiopia. Biol Invasions 20:2517–2534

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Seid A, Getenet B (2017) Exotic and invasive plants: water hyacinth. In: Social and ecological system dynamics: characteristics, trends, and integration in the Lake Tana basin, Ethiopia. Springer, Cham, pp 257–279

  4. Lolis LA, Alves DC, Fan S, Lv T, Yang L, Li Y, Liu C, Yu D, Thomaz SM (2020) Negative correlations between native macrophyte diversity and water hyacinth abundance are stronger in its introduced than in its native range. Divers Distrib 26(2):242–253

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Nugraha WD, Pradita LL (2020) Biogas production from water hyacinth. In Biogas-Recent Adv Integr Approaches In Tech Open. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91396

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Wondie A, Mengistou S (2014) Seasonal variability of secondary production of cladocerans and rotifers, and their trophic role in Lake Tana, Ethiopia, a large, turbid, tropical highland lake. Afr J Aquat Sci 39(4):403–416. https://doi.org/10.2989/16085914.2014.978835

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Tibebe D, Kassa Y, Melaku A, Lakew S (2019) Investigation of spatio-temporal variations of selected water quality parameters and trophic status of Lake Tana for sustainable management, Ethiopia. Microchem J 148:374–384. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13065-022-00806-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Chia SY, Tanga CM, Osuga IM, Cheseto X, Ekesi S, Dicke M, van Loon JJ (2020) Nutritional composition of black soldier flies larvae feeding on agro-industrial by-products. Entomol Exp Appl 168(6–7):472–481. https://doi.org/10.1111/eea.12940

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Anteneh W, Tewabe D, Assefa A, Zeleke A, Tenaw B, Wassie Y (2015) Water hyacinth coverage survey report on Lake Tana Biosphere Reserve. Techn Rep Series, 2

  10. Nega DT, Ramayya AV, Manenti F, Amaral AF (2021) Turning curse into cure: potential of water hyacinth for bio-refining-a contextual investigation of Lake Tana. Environ Chall 5:100387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2021.1003877

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Gao Z, Wang W, Lu X, Zhu F, Liu W, Wang X, Lei C (2019) Bioconversion performance and life table of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) on fermented maize straw. J Clean Prod 230:974–980. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro201905074

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Nabulo G, Oryem Origa H, Nasinyama GW et al (2008) Assessment of Zn, Cu, Pb and Ni contamination in wetland soils and plants in the Lake Victoria basin. Int J Environ Sci Technol 5:65–74. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03325998

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Birungi Z, Masola B, Zaranyika MF, Naigaga I, Marshall B (2007) Active biomonitoring of trace heavy metals using fish (Oreochromis niloticus) as bioindicator species. The case of Nakivubo wetland along Lake Victoria. Phys Chem Earth Parts A/B/C 32(15–18):1350–1358

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Makundi IN (2001) A study of heavy metal pollution in Lake Victoria sediments by energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence. J Environ Sci Health Part A 36(6):909–921

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Yezbie K (2016) Macrophyte ecology, nutrient dynamics and water quality of the littoral zone, and Yitamot wetland. Lake Tana, Ethiopia, Ph. D. thesis, Addis Ababa, University, Ethiopia. http://etd.aau.edu.et/handle/123456789/9903

  16. Kassa Y, Tibebe D (2019) Analyses of potential heavy metals and physico-chemical water quality parameters on Lake Tana, Ethiopia. J Acad Ind Res (JAIR) 8(7):130–138

    Google Scholar 

  17. Ioannou T, Bazigou K, Katsigianni A, Fotiadis M, Chroni C, Manios T, Daliakopoulos I, Tsompanidis C, Michalodimitraki E, Lasaridi K (2022) The “A2UFood Training Kit”: participatory workshops to minimize food loss and waste. Sustainability 14(4):2446. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14042446

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Kaza S, Yao L, Bhada-Tata P, Van Woerden F (2018) What a waste 2.0: a global snapshot of solid waste management to 2050. World Bank Publications

  19. Koda E, Miszkowska A, Sieczka A (2017) Levels of organic pollution indicators in groundwater at the old landfill and waste management site. Appl Sci 7(6):638. https://doi.org/10.3390/app7060638

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Moinuddin G, Jash S, Sarkar A, Dasgupta S (2017) Response of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) to foliar application of macro and micronutrients in the red and lateritic zone of West Bengal. J Crop Weed 13(1):185–188

    Google Scholar 

  21. Gachimbi LN, Van Keulen H, Thuranira EG, Karuku AM, De Jager A, Nguluu S, Nandwa SM (2005) Nutrient balances at farm level in Machakos (Kenya), using a participatory nutrient monitoring (NUTMON) approach. Land Use Policy 22(1):13–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2003.07.002

  22. Keino L, Baijukya F, Ng’etich W, Otinga AN, Okalebo JR, Njoroge R, Mukalama J (2015) Nutrients limiting soybean (glycine max l) growth in acrisols and ferralsols of Western Kenya. Plos one 10(12):e0145202. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0145202

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Anyega AO, Korir NK, Beesigamukama D, Changeh GJ, Nkoba K, Subramanian S, Van Loon JJ, Dicke M, Tanga CM (2021) Black soldier fly composted organic fertilizer enhances growth, yield, and nutrient quality of three key vegetable crops in sub-Saharan Africa. Front Plant Sci 12:680312. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2021.680312

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Islam MA, Islam S, Akter A, Rahman MH, Nandwani D (2017) Effect of organic and inorganic fertilizers on soil properties and the growth, yield and quality of tomato in Mymensingh, Bangladesh. Agriculture 7(3):18. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture7030018

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Wortmann CS, Kaizzi KC, Maman N, Cyamweshi A, Dicko M, Garba M, Milner M, Senkoro C, Tarfa B, Tettah F, Kibunja C, Munthali M, Nalivata P, Nkonde D, Nabahungu L, Ouattara K, Serme I (2019) Diagnosis of crop secondary and micro-nutrient deficiencies in sub-Saharan Africa. In Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst 113(2):127–140. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10705-018-09968-7. (Springer Science and Business Media LLC)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Beesigamukama D, Mochoge B, Korir N, Musyoka MW, Fiaboe KK, Nakimbugwe D, Khamis FM, Subramanian S, Dubois T, Ekesi S, Tanga CM (2020) Nitrogen fertilizer equivalence of black soldier fly frass fertilizer and synchrony of nitrogen mineralization for maize production. Agronomy 10(9):1395

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Houben D, Daoulas G, Faucon MP, Dulaurent AM (2020) Potential use of mealworm frass as a fertilizer: impact on crop growth and soil properties. Sci Rep 10(1):4659. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-61765

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Swinscoe I, Oliver DM, Ørnsrud R, Quilliam RS (2020) The microbial safety of seaweed as a feed component for black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae. Food Microbiol 91:103535

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Menino R, Felizes F, Castelo-Branco MA, Fareleira P, Moreira O, Nunes R, Murta D (2021) Agricultural value of black soldier fly larvae frass as organic fertilizer on ryegrass. Heliyon 7(1):e05855

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Ganvir KP, Darvekar AN, Raut VD, Thorat RK (2022) Effect of locally generated food waste on bioconversion and nutrient parameters of black soldier fly larvae, Hermetia illucens L. J Entomol Zool Stud 10(6). https://doi.org/10.22271/j.ento.2022.v10.i6b.9096

  31. Gold M, Cassar CM, Zurbrügg C, Kreuzer M, Boulos S, Diener S, Mathys A (2020) Biowaste treatment with black soldier fly larvae: Increasing performance through the formulation of biowastes based on protein and carbohydrates. Waste Manage 102:319–329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.10.036

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Surendra KC, Tomberlin JK, van Huis A, Cammack JA, Heckmann LHL, Khanal SK (2020) Rethinking organic wastes bioconversion: evaluating the potential of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens (L.))(Diptera: Stratiomyidae)(BSF). Waste Manage 117:58–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2020.07.050

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Tschirner M, Simon A (2015) Influence of different growing substrates and processing on the nutrient composition of black soldier fly larvae destined for animal feed. J Insects Food Feed 1(4):249–259. https://doi.org/10.3920/JIFF2014.0008

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Van Huis A (2013) Potential of insects as food and feed in assuring food security. Annu Rev Entomol 58:563–583. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-120811-153704

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Diener S, Zurbrügg C, Gutiérrez FR, Nguyen DH, Morel A, Koottatep T, Tockner K (2011) Black soldier fly larvae for organic waste treatment-prospects and constraints. Proc Waste Safe 2(52):1–8

  36. Zhang JB, Zhang J, Li JH, Tomerlin JK, Xiao XP, Ur Rehman K, Cai MM, Zheng LY, Yu ZN (2021) Black soldier fly: a new vista for livestock and poultry manure management. J Integr Agric 20(5):1167–1179. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2095-3119(20)63423-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Lalander C, Nordberg Å, Vinnerås B (2018) A comparison in product-value potential in four treatment strategies for food waste and faeces—assessing composting, fly larvae composting and anaerobic digestion. GCB Bioenergy 10(2):84–91. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcbb.12470

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Anderson JM, Ingram JSI (1993) A handbook of methods. CAB Int Wallingford Oxfordshire 221:62–65

    Google Scholar 

  39. Walinga I, Van Vark W, Houba V, Van der Lee J (1989) Soil and plant analysis: part 7-plant analysis procedures. Wageningen Agricultural University, The Netherlands

    Google Scholar 

  40. Quilliam RS, Nuku-Adeku C, Maquart P, Little D, Newton R, Murray F (2020) Integrating insect frass biofertilisers into sustainable peri-urban agro-food systems. J Insects Food Feed 6(3):315–322. https://doi.org/10.3920/JIFF2019.0049

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Zahn NH, Quilliam R (2017) The effects of insect frass created by Hermetia illucens on spring onion growth and soil fertility. Univ Stirling 1:1–65

    Google Scholar 

  42. Klammsteiner T, Turan V, Fernandez-Delgado Juarez M, Oberegger S, Insam H (2020) Suitability of black soldier fly frass as soil amendment and implication for organic waste hygienization. Agronomy 10(10):1578. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10101578

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Schmitt E, de Vries W (2020) Potential benefits of using Hermetia illucens frass as a soil amendment on food production and for environmental impact reduction. Curr Opin Green Sustain Chem 25:100335. https://doi.org/10.1016/jcogsc202003005

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Ravi HK, Degrou A, Costil J, Trespeuch C, Chemat F, Vian MA (2020) Larvae mediated valorization of industrial, agriculture and food wastes: biorefinery concept through bioconversion, processes, procedures, and products. Processes 8(7):857. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8070857

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Salomone R, Saija G, Mondello G, Giannetto A, Fasulo S, Savastano D (2017) Environmental impact of food waste bioconversion by insects: application of life cycle assessment to process using Hermetia illucens. J Clean Prod 140:890–905. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro201606154

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Pang W, Hou D, Chen J, Nowar EE, Li Z, Hu R, Tomberlin JK, Yu Z, Li Q, Wang S (2020) Reducing greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing carbon and nitrogen conversion in food wastes by the black soldier fly. J Environ Manag 260:110066. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110066

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Sarpong DE, Oduro-Kwarteng S, Gyasi SF, Buamah R, Donkor E, Awuah E, Baah MK (2019) Biodegradation by composting of municipal organic solid waste into organic fertilizer using the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens)(Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae. Int J Recycl Org Waste Agric 8:45–54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40093-019-0268-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Attiogbe FK, Ayim NYK, Martey J (2019) Effectiveness of black soldier fly larvae in composting mercury contaminated organic waste. Sci Afr 6:e00205. https://doi.org/10.1016/jsciaf2019e00205

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Koperchuk AV, Murin AV, Dortman AA, Filonov VV (2015) A change in mechanical behavior of safety fluid couplings when the lockup device is used in its construction. Appl Mech Mater 770:279–282. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.770.279

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Ozores-Hampton M (2017) Guidelines for assessing compost quality for safe and effective utilization in vegetable production. HortTechnology 27(2):162–165. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTTECH03349-16

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Sathish M, Kumar KS, Naveen KJ, Jeevanantham V (2011) A study on consumer switching behaviour in cellular service provider: a study with reference to Chennai. Far East J Psychol Bus 2(2):71–81

    Google Scholar 

  52. Yu G, Cheng P, Chen Y, Li Y, Yang Z, Chen Y, Tomberlin JK (2011) Inoculating poultry manure with companion bacteria influences growth and development of black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae. Environ Entomol 40(1):30–35

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Bernal MP, Alburquerque JA, Moral R (2009) Composting of animal manures and chemical criteria for compost maturity assessment A review. Bioresour Technol 100(22):5444–5453

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Singh J, Kalamdhad AS (2015) Assessment of compost quality in agitated pile composting of water hyacinth collected from different sources. Int J Recycl Org Waste Agric 4:175–183. https://doi.org/10.1007/s400930150097z

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Thompson WH, Leege P, Millner P, Watson M (2002) TMECC: Test methods for the examination of composting and compost. US Composting Council Research and Education Foundation and the United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-5068-2_22

  56. Roman P, Martinez MM, Pantoja A (2015) Farmer’s compost handbook. Experiences in Latin America. FAO

  57. Kawasaki K, Kawasaki T, Hirayasu H, Matsumoto Y, Fujitani Y (2020) Evaluation of fertilizer value of residues obtained after processing household organic waste with black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens). Sustainability 12(12):4920. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12124920

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Uchida R (2000) Essential nutrients for plant growth: nutrient functions and deficiency symptoms. Plant Nutr Manag Hawaii’s Soils 4:31–55

    Google Scholar 

  59. Song S, Ee AWL, Tan JKN, Cheong JC, Chiam Z, Arora S, Lam WN, Tan HTW (2021) Upcycling food waste using black soldier fly larvae: effects of further composting on frass quality, fertilising effect and its global warming potential. J Clean Prod 288:125664. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro2020125664

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Gärttling D, Kirchner SM, Schulz H (2020) Assessment of the N- and P fertilization effect of black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) by-products on maize. J Insect Sci 20(5):8. https://doi.org/10.1093/jisesa/ieaa089

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. McCauley A, Jones C, Jacobsen J (2009) Plant nutrient functions and deficiency and toxicity symptoms. Nutr Manag Module 9:1–16

    Google Scholar 

  62. Kinasih I, Putra RE, Permana AD, Gusmara FF, Nurhadi MY, Anitasari RA (2018) Growth performance of black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) fed on some plant based organic wastes. HAYATI J Biosci 25(2):79–79. https://doi.org/10.4308/hjb.25.2.79

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Setti L, Francia E, Pulvirenti A, Gigliano S, Zaccardelli M, Pane C, Caradonia F, Bortolini S, Maistrello L, Ronga D (2019) Use of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens (L.), Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae processing residue in peat-based growing media. Waste Manage 95:278–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.06017

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Hoornweg D, Thomas L, Otten L (2000) Composting and its applicability in developing countries. World Bank working paper series 8:1–46

  65. Conseil canadien des ministres de l'environnement. Groupe de travail sur les lignes directrices pour la qualité du compost (2005) Guidelines for compost quality. Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment

    Google Scholar 

  66. Daman R, Singh KK, Singh B (2016) Determination of micronutrient in vermicompost prepared with waste rose flower (Rosa berberia) collected from religious places of Patna. Res J Chem Environ Sci 4:37–43

    Google Scholar 

  67. Alloway BJ (2008) Zinc in soils and crop nutrition. The International Zinc Association and the International Fertilizer Industry Association

    Google Scholar 

  68. Yildirim-Aksoy M, Eljack R, Beck BH (2020) Nutritional value of frass from black soldier fly larvae, Hermetia illucens, in a channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, diet. Aquac Nutr 26(3):812–819. https://doi.org/10.1111/ANU.13040

    Article  Google Scholar 

  69. Watson C, Schlösser C, Vögerl J, Wichern F (2021) Excellent excrement? Frass impacts on a soil’s microbial community, processes and metal bioavailability. Appl Soil Ecol 168:104110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2021104110

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Ozturk H, Niazi P, Mansoor M, Monib AW, Alikhail M, Aziz A (2023) The function of zinc in animal, plant, and human nutrition. J Res ApplSci Biotechnol 2(2):35–43. https://doi.org/10.55544/jrasb.2.2.6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Tsonko T, Cebola LFJ (2012) Zinc in plants—an overview. Emir J Food Agric 24(4):322–333. https://www.ejfa.me/index.php/journal/article/view/892

    Google Scholar 

  72. Fauziah F, Wulansari R, Rezamela E (2018) The effect of Zn and Cu microfertilizers and soil fertilizers on the development of empoasca sp. on tea plant area. Jurnal Agrikultura. https://doi.org/10.24198/agrikultura.v29i1.16923

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the funding provided by Injibara University and Organization for Women in Science for the Developing World (OWSD) and Mawazo Fellows Fund. The authors appreciated the constructive feedback provided by anonymous reviewers and supervisors.

Funding

Grants for the study were supplied by Organization for Women in Science for the Developing World (OWSD) and Mawazo Fellowship Programme.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. College of Agriculture, Food, Environment and Climate Science, Injibara University, Injibara, Ethiopia

    Desta Mulu

  2. Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources, Hawassa University, Shashemene, Ethiopia

    Fantaw Yimer

  3. School of Science, Kaimosi Friends University College, Kaimosi, Kenya

    George Opande

Authors
  1. Desta Mulu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Fantaw Yimer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. George Opande
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

DM contributes to the conception, design, and implementation of the experiment, as well as the majority of the analysis and writing-up of findings. The literature review, data analysis, interpretation, and paper editing were all carried out by FY. In addition to organizing the technique, GO also produced the paper content, revised the manuscript, and evaluated and interpreted the data and findings.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Desta Mulu.

Ethics declarations

Ethical approval

All of the experimental procedures involving animals were conducted in accordance with animal care guidelines and approved by The Administration Committee of Experimental Animals, Kenya.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Mulu, D., Yimer, F. & Opande, G. Characterizing quality of frass produced by black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae after treating water hyacinth and fruit wastes in various proportions. Biomass Conv. Bioref. 13, 15185–15196 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-023-04552-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-023-04552-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation