Abstract
Built upon prior comparative studies of 3D and 2D films, the current project investigates the effects of 2D and 3D on viewers’ perception of enjoyment, narrative engagement, presence, involvement, and flow across three movie genres (Action/fantasy vs. Drama vs. Documentary). Through a 2 by 3 mixed factorial design, participants (n = 102) were separated into two viewing conditions (2D and 3D) and watched three 15-min film segments. Result suggested both visual production methods are equally efficient in terms of eliciting people’s enjoyment, narrative engagement, involvement, flow and presence, no effects of visual production method was found. In addition, through examining the genre effects in both 3D and 2D conditions, we found that 3D works better for action movies than documentaries in terms of eliciting viewers’ perception of enjoyment and presence, similarly, it improves views’ narrative engagement for documentaries than dramas substantially. Implications and limitations are discussed in detail.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
To ensure that we did not exclude other salient covariate factors, we also analyzed the data again by means of MANCOVA, with genre attitudes and attitude toward 2D/3D as co-variables. Since the overall pattern of results was similar to what we got from MANOVA, we only report MANOVA results here.
References
Belton, J. (2012). Digital 3d cinema: Digital cinema’s missing novelty phase. Film History: An International Journal, 24(2), 187–195. doi:10.2979/filmhistory.24.2.187.
Bowles, K. (2011). ‘Society with spectacles’: Cultural memory, business risk and the revival of 3d. Media International Australia, Incorporating Culture & Policy, 139, 103–112.
Bombeke, K., Van Looy, J., Szmalec, A., & Duyck, W. (2013). Leaving the third dimension: No measurable evidence for cognitive aftereffects of stereoscopic 3D movies. Journal of the Society for Information Display, 21(4), 159–166. doi:10.1002/jsid.164.
Rooney, B., & Hennessy, E. (2013). Actually in the cinema: A field study comparing real 3d and 2d movie patrons’ attention, emotion, and film satisfaction. Media Psychology, 16(4), 441–460. doi:10.1080/15213269.2013.838905.
Ji, Q., Tanca, J., & Janicke, S. (2013). Does 3D increase the enjoyment experience? A comparative experiment on the psychological effects of 3D. 3D. Research, 4(4), 1–9. doi:10.1007/3DRes.04(2013)2.
Jockenhövel, J. (2011). What is it if it’s not real? it’s genre—early color film and digital 3D. Cinemascope: Independent Film Journal, 7(15), 1–14.
Nabi, R. L., & Krcmar, M. (2004). Conceptualizing media enjoyment as attitude: Implications for mass media effects research. Communication Theory, 14(4), 288–310. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.2004.tb00316.x.
Tamborini, R., Bowman, N. D., Eden, A., Grizzard, M., & Organ, A. (2010). Defining media enjoyment as the satisfaction of intrinsic needs. Journal of Communication, 60(4), 758–777. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2010.01513.x.
Vorderer, P. (2001). It’s all entertainment—sure. But what exactly is entertainment? Communication research, media psychology, and the explanation of entertainment experiences. Poetics, 29(4), 247–261. doi:10.1016/s0304-422x(01)00037-7.
Vorder, P., Klimmt, C., & Ritterfeld, U. (2004). Enjoyment: At the heart of media entertainment. Communication Theory, 14(4), 388–408. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.2004.tb00321.x.
Bartsch, A., Vorderer, P., Mangold, R., & Reinhold, V. (2008). Appraisal of emotions in media use: Toward a process model of meta-emotion and emotion regulation. Media Psychology, 11(1), 7–27. doi:10.1080/15213260701813447.
Oliver, M. B., & Raney, A. A. (2011). Entertainment as pleasurable and meaningful: Differentiating hedonic and eudaimonic motivations for entertainment consumption. Journal of Communication, 61(5), 984–1004.
Oliver, M. B., & Bartsch, A. (2010). Appreciation as audience response: Exploring entertainment gratifications beyond hedonism. Human Communication Research, 36(1), 53–81. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2009.01368.x.
Bocking, S., & Wirth, W. (2005). Towards conceptualizing suspension of disbelief for communication research. Paper presented at the 55th annual conference of the international communication association, London, UK.
Vorderer, P., Wirth, W., Gouveia, F. R., Biocca, F., Saari, T., & Jäncke, F. (2004). Development of the MEC spatial presence questionnaire (MEC SPQ). Unpublished report to the European Community, Project Presence: MEC (IST-2001-37661). Hannover, Munich, Helsinki, Porto, Zurich.
Green, M. C., Brock, T. C., & Kaufman, G. F. (2004). Understanding media enjoyment: The role of transportation into narrative worlds. Communication Theory, 14(4), 311–327. doi:10.1093/ct/14.4.311.
Wirth, W., Hartmann, T., Boecking, S., Vorderer, P., Klimmt, C., Schramm, H., et al. (2007). A process model of the formation of spatial presence experiences. Media Psychology, 9(3), 493–525. doi:10.1080/15213260701283079.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Csikszentmihalyi, I. S. (1992). Optimal experience: Psychological studies of flow in consciousness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nakamura, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2005). The concept of flow. In C. R. Snyder & S. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 89–105). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Sherry, J. L. (2004). Flow and media enjoyment. Communication Theory, 14(4), 328–347. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.2004.tb00318.x.
Weibel, D., Wissmath, B., Habegger, S., Steiner, Y., & Groner, R. (2008). Playing online games against computer versus human-controlled opponents: Effects on presence, flow, and enjoyment. Computers in Human Behavior, 24(5), 2274–2291.
Cohen, J. (2001). Defining identification: A theoretical look at the identification of audiences with media characters. Mass Communication and Society, 4(3), 245–264. doi:10.1207/s15327825mcs0403_01.
Wirth, W. (2006). Involvement. In J. Bryant & P. Vorderer (Eds.), Psychology of entertainment (pp. 199–212). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Vorderer, P. (1998). Unterhaltung durch Fernsehen: Welche Rolle spielen parasoziale Beziehungen zwischen Zuschauern und Fernsehakteuren. Fernsehforschung in Deutschland. Themen, Akteure, Methoden, pp 689–707.
Tsay, M., & Nabi, R. (2006). Testing a tripartite model of media enjoyment with participatory reality TV. Paper presented at the meeting of the International Communication Association, Dresden, Germany.
Lee, K. M. (2004). Presence, explicated. Communication Theory, 14(1), 27–50. doi:10.1093/ct/14.1.27.
Ijsselsteijn, W., Freeman, J., & de Ridder, H. (2001). Presence: Where are we? Cyber Psychology and Behavior, 4, 179–182.
Minsky, M. (1980). Telepresence. Omni, June, 45–51.
Wissmath, B., Weibel, D., & Groner, R. (2009). Dubbing or subtitling? Effects on spatial presence, transportation, flow, and enjoyment. Journal of Media Psychology, 21(3), 114–125. doi:10.1027/1864-1105.21.3.114.
Bae, S., Lee, H., Park, H., Cho, H., Park, J., & Kim, J. (2012). The effects of egocentric and allocentric representations on presence and perceived realism: Tested in stereoscopic 3D games. Interacting with Computers, 24(4), 251–264. doi:10.1016/j.intcom.2012.04.009.
Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception. New York: Psychology Press.
Zettl, H. (1973). Sight, sound, motion: Applied media aesthetics. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth.
Kaptein, R. G., Kuijsters, A., Lambooij, M. T., IJsselsteijn, W. A., & Heynderickx, I. (2008). Performance evaluation of 3D-TV systems. Paper presented at the Electronic Imaging 2008.
Lambooij, M., Ijsselsteijn, W., Bouwhuis, D. G., & Heynderickx, I. (2011). Evaluation of stereoscopic images: Beyond 2D Quality. IEEE Transactions on Broadcasting, 57(2), 432–444. doi:10.1109/tbc.2011.2134590.
Ijsselsteijn, W., Freeman, J., & de Ridder, H. (2001). Presence: Where are we? Cyberpsychology and Behavior, 4, 179–182.
Neuman, W. R. (1990). Beyond HDTV: Exploring subjective responses to very high definition television. Media Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Slater, M., & Wilbur, S. (1997). A framework for immersive virtual environments (FIVE): Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoperators and virtual environments, 6(6), 603–616.
Visch, V. T., Tan, E. S., & Molenaar, D. (2010). The emotional and cognitive effect of immersion in film viewing. Cognition and Emotion, 24(8), 1439–1445. doi:10.1080/02699930903498186.
Lombard, M., Reich, R. D., Grabe, M. E., Bracken, C. C., & Ditton, T. B. (2000). Presence and television: The role of screen size. Human Communication Research, 26(1), 75–98. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2000.tb00750.x.
Potter, R., & Choi, J. (2006). The effects of auditory structural complexity on attitudes, attention, arousal, and memory. Media Psychology, 8(4), 395–419. doi:10.1207/s1532785xmep0804_4.
Wirth, W., Hofer, M., & Schramm, H. (2012). The role of emotional involvement and trait absorption in the formation of spatial presence. Media Psychology, 15(1), 19–43. doi:10.1080/15213269.2011.648536.
Bowman, N., & Boyan, A. (2008). Cognitive skill and presence predict flow in natural mapping (Wii) video game interfaces. Video game division of the international communication association, Montreal, Canada.
Jin, S. (2012). “Toward integrative models of flow”: Effects of performance, skill, challenge, playfulness, and presence on flow in video games. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 56(2), 169–186. doi:10.1080/08838151.2012.678516.
Visch, V. T., & Tan, E. S. (2009). Categorizing moving objects into film genres: The effect of animacy attribution, emotional response, and the deviation from non-fiction. Cognition, 110(2), 265–272. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2008.10.018.
Visch, V., & Tan, E. (2008). Narrative versus style: Effect of genre-typical events versus genre-typical filmic realizations on film viewers’ genre recognition. Poetics, 36(4), 301–315. doi:10.1016/j.poetic.2008.03.003.
Lombard, M., Ditton, T., & Weinstein, L. (2009). Measuring (tele) presence: The temple presence inventory. Paper presented at the Twelfth International Workshop on Presence, Los Angeles, California, USA.
Bocking, S., Gysbers, A., Wirth, W., Klimmt, C., Hartmann, T., Schramm, H., Laarni, J., Sacau, A., & Vorderer, P (2004). Theoretical and empirical support for distinctions between components and conditions of Spatial Presence. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the VII. International Workshop on Presence–Presence.
Busselle, R., & Bilandzic, H. (2009). Measuring narrative engagement. Media Psychology, 12(4), 321–347.
Rheinberg, F., Vollmeyer, R., & Engeser, S. (2003). Die Erfassung des Flow-Erlebens. Diagnostik von motivation und selbstkonzept, 2, 261–279.
Howell, D. C. (2007). Statistical methods for psychology (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
Howarth, P. A., & Hodder, S. G. (2008). Characteristics of habituation to motion in a virtual environment. Displays, 29(2), 117–123. doi:10.1016/j.displa.2007.09.009.
Unno, Y., Kuwabara, T., Uzenoff, R., Natsui, N., & Ishikawa, K. (2013). Analysis of individual variability and habituation in stereoscopic radiography. SPIE Proceedings, 8673. doi:10.1117/12.2006650.
Teo, T., & Noyes, J. (2011). An assessment of the influence of perceived enjoyment and attitude on the intention to use technology among pre-service teachers: A structural equation modeling approach. Computers & Education, 57, 1645–1653. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2011.03.002.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ji, Q., Lee, Y.S. Genre Matters: A Comparative Study on the Entertainment Effects of 3D in Cinematic Contexts. 3D Res 5, 15 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13319-014-0015-6
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13319-014-0015-6