Abstract
China’s concept of “ecological civilization” can be understood as a new system of development and governance based on the perspective of political decision-making. Environmental management, ecological restoration, and green development are its primary principles—distinctly different from industrial and agricultural-oriented civilizations. In this paper, we evaluate the evolution of political connotations of the ecological civilization concept in China over the past 15 years through a textual analysis approach. Additionally, we systematically outline an ecological civilization indicator system and analyze its evolutionary process, applicable scales, and role in guiding the implementation of the ecological civilization concept. Eco-civilization demonstration sites and experiences are also discussed, followed by a review of academic research and policy-making responses. Finally, we propose different perspectives on the outlook for the future of ecological civilization development in China.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
References
Bian, J., H. Ren, and P. Liu. 2020. Evaluation of urban ecological wellbeing performance in China: A case study of 30 provincial capital cities. Journal of Cleaner Production 254: 120109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120109.
Chen, P., and X.Q. Shi. 2022. Dynamic evaluation of China’s ecological civilization construction based on target correlation degree and coupling coordination degree. Environmental Impact Assessment Review 93: 106734. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2021.106734.
Cheng, H.R., L.K. Zhu, and J.J. Meng. 2022. Fuzzy evaluation of the ecological security of land resources in mainland China based on the Pressure-State-Response framework. Science of the Total Environment 804: 150053. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150053.
Costanza, R. 1989. What is ecological economics? Ecological Economics 1: 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/0921-8009(89)90020-7.
Cribb, J.L. 2017. Green China: In pursuit of rebuilding as ‘an Ecological Civilization’. https://mahb.stanford.edu/blog/green-china/. Accessed 26 Jan 2022.
Daly, H.E. 1990. Toward some operational principles of sustainable development. Ecological Economics 2: 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/0921-8009(90)90010-R.
Daly, M. 2017. Quantifying the environmental impact of ecovillages and co-housing communities: A systematic literature review. Local Environment 22: 1358–1377. https://doi.org/10.1080/13549839.2017.1348342.
Diao, S.H. 2022. The inheritance and development from traditional Chinese ecological wisdom to Xi Jinpin thought on ecological civilization. Jiangsu Social Sciences 2: 12–25. https://doi.org/10.13858/j.cnki.cn32-1312/c.20220325.019. (in Chinese, English summary).
Dong, F., Y.Q. Zhang, X.Y. Zhang, M.Y. Hu, Y.J. Gao, and J. Zhu. 2021. Exploring ecological civilization performance and its determinants in emerging industrialized countries: A new evaluation system in the case of China. Journal of Cleaner Production 315: 128051. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.128051.
Ehrlich, P., P. Kareiva, and G. Daily. 2012. Securing natural capital and expanding equity to rescale civilization. Nature 486: 68–73. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11157.
Geng, Y., J. Fu, J. Sarkis, and B. Xue. 2012. Towards a national circular economy indicator system in China: An evaluation and critical analysis. Journal of Cleaner Production 23: 216–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2011.07.005.
Gong, Y.L., J.T. Li, and Y.X. Li. 2020. Spatiotemporal characteristics and driving mechanisms of arable land in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region during 1990–2015. Socio-Economic Planning Sciences 70: 100720. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seps.2019.06.005.
Gu, Y.F., Y.F. Wu, J.G. Liu, M. Xu, and T.Y. Zuo. 2020. Ecological civilization and government administrative system reform in China. Resources, Conservation and Recycling 155: 104654. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2019.104654.
Guo, B., W.Q. Zang, X. Yang, X.Z. Huang, R. Zhang, H.W. Wu, L.A. Yang, Z. Wang, et al. 2020. Improved evaluation method of the soil wind erosion intensity based on the cloud–AHP model under the stress of global climate change. Science of the Total Environment 746: 141271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141271.
Hajer, M. 1995. The politics of environmental discourse: Ecological modernisation and the policy process. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hansen, M.H., H. Li, and R. Svarverud. 2018. Ecological civilization: Interpreting the Chinese past, projecting the global future. Global Environmental Change 53: 195–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2018.09.014.
Hong, W.Y., C.C. Liao, R.Z. Guo, Q. An, X.M. Li, and T. Ma. 2023. Predicting the minimum scale of urban ecological space based on socio-ecological systems analysis. Science of the Total Environment 863: 160912. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.160912.
Hu, P. 2022. Evaluation algorithm of coastal city ecological civilization development level based on improved BP neural network. Journal of Environmental Management 321: 116039. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.116039.
Huang, P., and L. Weatman. 2021. China’s imaginary of ecological civilization: A resonance between the state-led discourse and sociocultural dynamics. Energy Research & Social Science 81: 102253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2021.102253.
Jacobs, M. 1991. The green economy: Environment, sustainable development and the politics of the future. London: Pluto Press.
Jacob, K. and Jänicke, M. 2006. Environmental governance in global perspective—new approaches to ecological and political modernization. Berlin. https://ssrn.com/abstract=909500
Jänicke, M. 1985. Preventive environmental policy as ecological modernisation and structural policy. Berlin: Wissenschaftszentrum, Orig. 1984.
Jänicke, M. 2008. Ecological modernisation: New perspectives. Journal of Cleaner Production 16: 557–565. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2007.02.011.
Jänicke, M., M. Binder, and H. Mönch. 1997. “Dirty industries”: Patterns of change in industrial countries. Environmental and Resource Economics 9: 467–491. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02441762.
Jiang, B., Y. Bai, C.P. Wong, X.B. Xu, and J. Alatalo. 2019. China’s ecological civilization program–Implementing ecological redline policy. Land Use Policy 81: 111–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.10.031.
Jiang, M.M., J.B. Zhou, Z.F. Yang, X. Ji, L.X. Zhang, and G.Q. Chen. 2009. Ecological evaluation of Beijing economy based on emergy indices. Communication in Nonlinear Science and Numerical Simulation 14: 2481–2494. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cnsns.2008.03.021.
Krause, A., and V.S. Rotter. 2017. Linking energy-sanitation-agriculture: Intersectional resource management in smallholder households in Tanzania. Science of the Total Environment 590–591: 514–530. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.02.205.
Li, P., Z.L. Huang, H. Ren, H.X. Liu, and Q. Wang. 2011. The evolution of environmental management philosophy under rapid economic development in China. Ambio 40: 88–92. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-010-0090-8.
Li, Y.G., W. Liu, Q. Feng, M. Zhu, L.S. Yang, J.T. Zhang, and X.W. Yin. 2023. The role of land use change in affecting ecosystem services and the ecological security pattern of the Hexi Regions, Northwest China. Science of the Total Environment 855: 158940. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158940.
Li, Z., X.L. Ouyang, K.R. Du, and Y. Zhao. 2017. Does government transparency contribute to improved eco-efficiency performance? An empirical study of 262 cities in China. Energy Policy 110: 79–89.
Liu, J.G. 2010. China’s road to sustainability. Science 328: 50.
Liu, K., Y.M. Tao, Y. Wu, and C.X. Wang. 2020. How does ecological civilization construction affect carbon emission intensity? Evidence from Chinese provinces’ panel data. Chinese Journal of Population, Resources and Environment 18: 97–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cjpre.2019.10.002.
Lu, X., S.J. Zhang, J. Xing, Y.J. Wang, W.H. Chen, D. Ding, Y. Wu, S.H. Wang, et al. 2020. Progress of air pollution control in China and its challenges and opportunities in the ecological civilization Era. Engineering 6: 1423–1431. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eng.2020.03.014.
Luo, K., H. Wang, C. Ma, C.G. Wu, X.D. Zheng, and L. Xie. 2022. Carbon sinks and carbon emissions balance of land use transition in Xinjiang, China: Differences and compensation. Scientific Reports 12: 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-27095-w.
Mathews, J., and H. Tan. 2016. Circular economy: Lessons from China. Nature 531: 440–442. https://doi.org/10.1038/531440a.
Meng, F.X., J.L. Guo, Z.Q. Guo, J. Lee, G.Y. Liu, and N. Wang. 2021. Urban ecological transition: The practice of ecological civilization construction in China. Science of the Total Environment 755: 142633. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142633.
Mol, A.J.P. 2001. Globalization and environmental reform: The ecological modernization of the global economy. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Qiu, S., M.Z. Fang, Q. Yu, T. Niu, H.J. Liu, F. Wang, C.L. Xu, M.S. Ai, et al. 2023. Study of spatialtemporal changes in Chinese forest eco-space and optimization strategies for enhancing carbon sequestration capacity through ecological spatial network theory. Science of the Total Environment 859: 160035. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.160035.
Raza, M.Y., and B.Q. Lin. 2020. Decoupling and mitigation potential analysis of CO2 emissions from Pakistan’s transport sector. Science of the Total Environment 730: 139000. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139000.
Schönfeld, M., and X. Chen. 2019. Daoism and the project of an ecological civilization or Shengtai Wenming 生态文明. Religions 10: 630. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10110630.
Shang, Y.P., M.L. Song, and X. Zhao. 2022. The development of China’s Circular Economy: From the perspective of environmental regulation. Waste Management 149: 186–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2022.05.027.
Thygesen, U.H., C.M. Albertsen, C.W. Berg, K. Kristensen, and A. Nielsen. 2017. Validation of ecological state space models using the Laplace approximation. Environmental and Ecological Statistics 24: 317–339. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10651-017-0372-4.
Tian, P., H.Q. Wu, T.T. Yang, F.L. Jiang, W.J. Zhang, Z.L. Zhu, Q.M. Yue, M.X. Liu, et al. 2021. Evaluation of urban water ecological civilization: A case study of three urban agglomerations in the Yangtze River Economic Belt, China. Ecological Indicators 123: 107351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2021.107351.
United Nations. 2020. Nations sustainable development cooperation framework for the People’s Republic of China. chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/. https://unsdg.un.org/sites/default/files/2020-11/China-UNSDCF-2021-2025.pdf. Accessed 17 Jan 2023.
Wang, Y.J., H. Chen, R.Y. Long, Q.Q. Sun, S.Y. Jiang, and B. Liu. 2022. Has the sustainable development planning policy promoted the green transformation in China’s resource-based cities? Resources. Conservation and Recycling 180: 106181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2022.106181.
Wang, D., Y.M. Li, X.D. Yang, Z.Y. Zhang, S.T. Gao, Q.H. Zhou, Y. Zhuo, X.C. Wen, and Z.Y. Guo. 2021. Evaluating urban ecological civilization and its obstacle factors based on integrated model of PSR-EVW-TOPSIS: A case study of 13 cities in Jiangsu Province, China. Ecological Indicators 133: 108431. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2021.108431.
Wang, W.Q., Q. Xu, G.L. Xia, X. Dong, and C.K. Bao. 2023. Constructing a paradigm of environmental impact assessment under the new era of ecological civilization in China. Environmental Impact Assessment Review. 99: 107021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2022.107021.
Wu, M.H., Y.H. Liu, Z.C. Xu, G. Yan, M.Y. Ma, S.Y. Zhou, and Y. Qian. 2021. Spatio-temporal dynamics of China’s ecological civilization progress after implementing national conservation strategy. Journal of Cleaner Production 285: 124886. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124886.
Xie, H.L., J.M. Wen, and Y. Choi. 2021. How the SDGs are implemented in China—A comparative study based on the perspective of policy instruments. Journal of Cleaner Production 291: 125937. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.125937.
Xue, B., X. Xiao, J.Z. Li, B.Y. Zhao, and B. Fu. 2023a. Multi-source data-driven identification of urban functional areas: A case of Shenyang, China. Chinese Geographical Science 33: 21–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11769-022-1320-2.
Xue, B., Y.T. Xu, X.M. Xiao, J.H. Xia, X.L. Ke, and J. Yang. 2023b. Meta-scenario computation for social-geographical sustainability. Frontiers in Environmental Science 11: 1143374. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2023.1143374.
Yan, L., X.H. Zhang, H.Y. Pan, J. Wu, L.L. Lin, Y.Z. Zhang, C.L. Xu, M. Xu, and H.B. Luo. 2021. Progress of Chinese ecological civilization construction and obstacles during 2003–2020: Implications from one set of emergy-based indicator system. Ecological Indicators 130: 108112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2021.108112.
Yang, Q.Y., D. Gao, D.Y. Song, and Y. Li. 2021. Environmental regulation, pollution reduction and green innovation: The case of the Chinese Water Ecological Civilization City Pilot policy. Economic Systems 45: 100911. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecosys.2021.100911.
Yang, Y.J., and K. Wang. 2019. The effects of different land use patterns on the microclimate and ecosystem services in the agro-pastoral ecotone of Northern China. Ecological Indicators 106: 105522. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2019.105522.
Yang, Y., Y.Y. Zhang, H. Yang, and F.Y. Yang. 2022. Horizontal ecological compensation as a tool for sustainable development of urban agglomerations: Exploration of the realization mechanism of Guanzhong Plain urban agglomeration in China. Environmental Science & Policy 137: 301–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2022.09.004.
Ye, X., and H. Kuang. 2022. Evaluation of ecological quality in southeast Chongqing based on modified remote sensing ecological index. Scientific Reports 12: 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-19851-9.
Yu, L., B. Xue, S. Stückrad, H. Thomas, and G. Cai. 2020. Indicators for energy transition targets in China and Germany: A text analysis. Ecological Indicators 111: 106012. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2019.106012.
Yu, X., and Y.S. Zhang. 2021. An economic mechanism of industrial ecology: Theory and evidence. Structural Change and Economic Dynamics 58: 14–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.strueco.2021.03.008.
Zeng, Z.D. 2008. On the ecological civilization thought of ancient Chinese society and its enlightenment. Academic Exchange 176: 49–54.
Zhai, J.N., B. Han, H.Q. Li, W.X. Ren, and B. Xue. 2023. Accounting for the nitrogen footprint of food production in Chinese provinces during 1998–2018. Journal of Cleaner Production 389: 136011. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.136011.
Zhang, Y.S. 2021. China’s green urbanization in the perspective of ecological civilization. Chinese Journal of Urban and Environmental Studies 09: 2150001. https://doi.org/10.1142/S2345748121500019.
Zhang, Y.Z. 2022a. Leading a new model of sustainable human progress: China’s great achievements in eco-environmental conservation since the 18th CPC National Congress and its global significance. Social Sciences International 6: 4–14 (in Chinese, English summary).
Zhang, Y.Z. 2022b. Urbanization model: From industrial civilization to ecological civilization. Urban and Environmental Studies 1: 79–87 (in Chinese, English summary).
Zhang, Y.X., and B.W. Fu. 2023. Impact of China’s establishment of ecological civilization pilot zones on carbon dioxide emissions. Journal of Environmental Management 325: 116652. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.116652.
Zhang, H., Y. Duan, H. Wang, Z.L. Han, and H.Y. Wang. 2022a. An empirical analysis of tourism eco-efficiency in ecological protection priority areas based on the DPSIR-SBM model: A case study of the Yellow River Basin. China. Ecological Informatics 70: 101720. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoinf.2022.101720.
Zhang, L.B., H. Wang, W.T. Zhang, C. Wang, M.T. Bao, T.L. Liang, and K. Liu. 2022b. Study on the development patterns of ecological civilization construction in China: An empirical analysis of 324 prefectural cities. Journal of Cleaner Production 367: 132975. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.132975.
Zhang, Y.X., D.J. Guan, L. Wu, X.Y. Su, L.L. Zhou, and G.C. Peng. 2022c. How can an ecological compensation threshold be determined? A discriminant model integrating the minimum data approach and the most appropriate land use scenarios. Science of the Total Environment 82: 158377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158377.
Zhang, M., Y.M. Liu, J. Wu, and T.T. Wang. 2018. Index system of urban resource and environment carrying capacity based on ecological civilization. Environmental Impact Assessment Review 68: 90–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2017.11.002.
Zhang, R.Q., P.H. Li, L.P. Xu, and S. Zhong. 2023. Reconciling ecological footprint and ecosystem services in natural capital accounting: Applying a novel framework to the Silk Road Economic Belt in China. Journal of Environmental Management 330: 117115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.117115.
Zhang, W., H.L. Li, and X.B. An. 2011. Ecological civilization construction is the fundamental way to develop low-carbon economy. Energy Procedia 5: 839–843. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2011.03.148.
Zhen, L., N. Ishwaran, Q. Luo, Y.J. Wei, and Q. Zhang. 2020. Role and significance of restoration technologies for vulnerable ecosystems in building an ecological civilization in China. Environmental Development 34: 100494. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2020.100494.
Zuo, Z.L., H.X. Guo, J.H. Cheng, and Y.L. Li. 2021. How to achieve new progress in ecological civilization construction? Based on cloud model and coupling coordination degree model. Ecological Indicators 127: 107789. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2021.107789.
Acknowledgements
Thanks for the support from URA Project (Urban-Rural Assembly, Grant No. 01LE1804A1) funded by German Federal Ministry of Education and Research and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (41971166). The authors are grateful to two anonymous referees and to Bo Söderström whose insightful comments helped producing a better paper.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors have no conflict of interest to declare that might have influenced the content of this article.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Xue, B., Han, B., Li, H. et al. Understanding ecological civilization in China: From political context to science. Ambio 52, 1895–1909 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-023-01897-2
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-023-01897-2