Abstract
Turbulent mixing in the upper ocean (30–200 m) of the northwestern Weddell Sea is investigated based on profiles of temperature, salinity and microstructure data obtained during February 2014. Vertical thermohaline structures are distinct due to geographic features and sea ice distribution, resulting in that turbulent dissipation rates (ε) and turbulent diffusivity (K) are vertically and spatially non-uniform. On the shelf north of Antarctic Peninsula and Philip Ridge, with a relatively homogeneous vertical structure of temperature and salinity through the entire water column in the upper 200 m, both ε and K show significantly enhanced values in the order of O(10–7)–O(10–6) W/kg and O(10–3)–O(10–2) m2/s respectively, about two or three orders of magnitude higher than those in the open ocean. Mixing intensities tend to be mild due to strong stratification in the Powell Basin and South Orkney Plateau, where ε decreases with depth from O(10–8) to O(10–9) W/kg, while K changes vertically in an inverse direction relative to ε from O(10–6) to O(10–5) m2/s. In the marginal ice zone, K is vertically stable with the order of 10–4 m2/s although both intense dissipation and strong stratification occur at depth of 50–100 m below a cold freshened mixed layer. Though previous studies indentify wind work and tides as the primary energy sources for turbulent mixing in coastal regions, our results indicate weak relationship between K and wind stress or tidal kinetic energy. Instead, intensified mixing occurs with large bottom roughness, demonstrating that only when internal waves generated by wind and tide impinge on steep topography can the energy dissipate to support mixing. In addition, geostrophic current flowing out of the Weddell Sea through the gap west of Philip Passage is another energy source contributing to the local intense mixing.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
D’Asaro E A, Eriksen C C, Levine M D, et al. 1995. Upper-Ocean inertial currents forced by a strong storm. Part I: data and comparisons with linear theory. J Phys Oceanogr, 25(11): 2909–2936
Fahrbach E, Rohardt G, Schröder M, et al. 1994. Transport and structure of the Weddell Gyre. Ann Geophys, 12(9): 840–855
Gill A E. 1984. On the behavior of internal waves in the wakes of storms. J Phys Oceanogr, 14(7): 1129–1151
Gordon A L, Huber B A, Hellmer H H, et al. 1993. Deep and bottom water of the Weddell Sea’s western rim. Science, 262(5130): 95–97
Gordon A L, Mensch M, Dong Zhaoqian, et al. 2000. Deep and bottom water of the Bransfield Strait eastern and central Basins. J Geophys Res, 105(C5): 11337–11346
Gordon A L, Visbeck M, Huber B. 2001. Export of Weddell Sea deep and bottom water. J Geophy Res, 106(C5): 9005–9017
Huang Ruixin. 1999. Mixing and energetics of the oceanic thermohaline circulation. J Phys Oceanogr, 29(4): 727–746
Jayne S R. 2009. The impact of abyssal mixing parameterizations in an Ocean general circulation model. J Phys Oceanogr, 39(7): 1756–1775
Kitade Y, Shimada K, Tamura T, et al. 2014. Antarctic bottom water production from the Vincennes Bay Polynya, East Antarctica. Geophys Res Lett, 41(10): 3528–3534
Kunze E, Firing E, Hummon J M, et al. 2006. Global abyssal mixing inferred from lowered ADCP shear and CTD strain profiles. J Phys Oceanogr, 36(8): 1553–1576
Ledwell J R, Laurent L C S, Girton J B, et al. 2011. Diapycnal mixing in the antarctic circumpolar current. J Phys Oceanogr, 41(1): 241–246
Levine M D, Padman L, Muench R D, et al. 1997. Internal waves and tides in the western Weddell Sea: observations from Ice Station Weddell. J Geophys Res, 102(C1): 1073–1089
Liang Xinfeng, Thurnherr A M. 2012. Eddy-modulated internal waves and mixing on a midocean ridge. J Phys Oceanogr, 42(7): 1242–1248
Matano R P, Gordon A L, Muench R D, et al. 2002. A numerical study of the circulation in the northwestern Weddell Sea. Deep-Sea Res Part II, 49(21): 4827–4841
Moum J N, Farmer D M, Smyth W D, et al. 2003. Structure and generation of turbulence at interfaces strained by internal solitary waves propagating shoreward over the continental shelf. J Phys Oceanogr, 33(10): 2093–2112
Muench R D, Gordon A L. 1995. Circulation and transport of water along the western Weddell Sea margin. J Geophys Res, 100(C9): 18503–18515
Muench R D, Padman L, Howard S L, et al. 2002. Upper ocean diapycnal mixing in the northwestern Weddell Sea. Deep-Sea Res Part II, 49(21): 4843–4861
Nikurashin M, Ferrari R. 2010. Radiation and dissipation of internal waves generated by geostrophic motions impinging on smallscale topography: theory. J Phys Oceanogr, 40(5): 1055–1074
Nash J D, Kunze E, Toole J M, et al. 2004. Internal tide reflection and turbulent mixing on the continental slope. J Phys Oceanogr, 34(5): 1117–1134
Oakey N S. 1982. Determination of the rate of dissipation of turbulent energy from simultaneous temperature and velocity shear microstructure measurements. J Phys Oceanogr, 12(3): 256–271
Ohshima K I, Fukamachi Y, Williams G D, et al. 2013. Antarctic bottom water production by intense sea-ice formation in the Cape Darnley polynya. Nat Geoscience, 6(3): 235–240
Orsi A H, Nowlin W D, Whitworth T. 1993. On the circulation and stratification of the Weddell Gyre. Deep-Sea Res Part I, 40(1): 169–203
Osborn T R. 1980. Estimates of the local rate of vertical diffusion from dissipation measurements. J Phys Oceanogr, 10(1): 83–89
Padman L, Fricker H A, Coleman R, et al. 2002. A new tide model for the Antarctic ice shelves and seas. Ann Glaciol, 34(1): 247–254
Rainville L, Lee C M, Woodgate R A. 2011. Impact of wind-driven mixing in the Arctic Ocean. Oceanography, 24(3): 136–145
Robertson R, Padman L, Levine M D. 1995. Fine structure, microstructure, and vertical mixing processes in the upper ocean in the western Weddell Sea. J Geophy Res, 100(C9): 18517–18535
Schodlok M P, Hellmer H H, Beckmann A. 2002. On the transport, variability and origin of dense water masses crossing the South Scotia Ridge. Deep-Sea Res Part II, 49(21): 4807–4825
Thompson A F, Heywood K J. 2008. Frontal structure and transport in the northwestern Weddell Sea. Deep-Sea Res Part I, 55(10): 1229–1251
von Gyldenfeldt A-B, Fahrbach E, Garcia M A, et al. 2002. Flow variability at the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula. Deep-Sea Res Part II, 49(21): 4743–4766
Wolk F, Yamazaki H, Seuront L, et al. 2002. A new free-fall profiler for measuring biophysical microstructure. J Atmos Oceanic Technol, 19(5): 780–793
Zhang Jubao, Schmitt R W, Huang Ruixing. 1999. The relative influence of diapycnal mixing and hydrologic forcing on the stability of the Thermohaline Circulation. J Phys Oceanogr, 29(6): 1096–1108
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Foundation item: Chinese Polar Environment Comprehensive Investigation and Assessment Programs under contract Nos CHINARE-01-01 and CHINARE-04-01.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Guo, G., Shi, J. & Jiao, Y. Turbulent mixing in the upper ocean of the northwestern Weddell Sea, Antarctica. Acta Oceanol. Sin. 35, 1–9 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13131-016-0816-y
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13131-016-0816-y