In its secular form, mindfulness has been defined as “…moment-to-moment, non-judgmental awareness, cultivated by paying attention in a specific way, that is, in the present moment, and as non-reactively, as non-judgmentally, and as openheartedly as possible” (Kabat-Zinn, 2015, p. 1481). One way of developing mindfulness is through the practice of meditation. The words mindfulness and meditation are often used interchangeably. However, it is important to note that meditation aims to induce a mindful state but also increases trait mindfulness and thus makes it more likely that an individual will spontaneously exhibit mindful behaviours. Meditation has been categorised as providing two interlinked functions, a means to creating the experience of mindfulness as described by Kabat-Zinn or a contemplative (or sometimes referred to as concentrative) practice focussing on a specific object of attention, such as a candle, mandala, or mantra (Marlatt & Kristeller, 1999). Hence, meditation can be perceived as the vehicle and mindfulness is one potential experiential outcome. Nonetheless, we acknowledge that there are connections between mindfulness meditation and the contemplative practice of meditation.

In this article, we explore the religious and secular perspectives that are intertwined with these meditation practices. To create a targeted commentary, we have drawn from the arguments presented by Oman (2023) in his review of mindfulness for global public health and, more specifically, in reference to his critique of intercultural and interreligious competence. Oman (2023), in his comprehensive review paper, discusses the modern mindfulness movement from a public health perspective. Emerging from his review, he suggests there are 14 identifiable areas (or axes) that can be aligned with a public health approach and the area of mindfulness. In Axis 13, he suggests that a possibility exists for supporting professional/social intercultural and interreligious competence. Intercultural and interreligious competence requires the development of knowledge and skills to progress functional relationship-building between groups within societies, which in turn results in greater levels of empathy and understanding, and optimal levels of responsivity, sensitivity, and acceptance (Oman, 2023). We extend this public health perspective by creating a pedagogical focus on how meditation could be taught, which inevitably complements and extends the focus on global public health.

One key article has emerged after Oman’s (2023) review. In their paper, Knabb and Vazquez (2023) created a useful report describing a perspective from the Christian religious tradition, and further acknowledge the meditative and contemplative practices embraced within this tradition. They develop a useful seven-step system that aims to emphasise the inclusion of the Christian perspective in the learning and practice of mindfulness. They begin with an acknowledgement of a designated religious system, followed by an application of the religious protocol used by that religion for developing mindfulness, then considering the public health objective. They also assert that guidelines for practice need to consider context, elucidation of the efficacy of the programme, engagement in research, and transparency around the evidence for the practice. This Christian perspective is invaluable, although we aim to extend this view by considering specific propositions that can guide more inclusive and wide ranging interreligious competency options beyond the monotheistic viewpoint (Bianchi & Stefon, 2022).

Three further recent articles have also brought unique contributions to this discussion by addressing the points raised by Oman (2023). These include (1) learning from cultural groups that have successfully engaged the global public health efforts and integrating these ideas into the development of mindfulness practice (Palitsky et al., 2023); (2) contesting the definition of mindfulness and being more open to alternative meditation practices (Sedlmeier, 2023); and (3) specific application to groups often omitted from discussion in this area, such those living in the Pacific rim (Chacko et al., 2023). Other recent articles, although not directly addressing Oman’s review, have also highlighted the need for more religious and cultural inclusion when addressing the public health needs of certain communities (e.g. Ting et al., 2024). Therefore, it is clear that there is considerable discussion around the notion of religious pluralism and a move in many countries to create co-existing notions of acceptance and inclusion of the diversity of belief systems (Morgan & Sandage, 2016).

In the area of mindfulness, there is a dearth of literature attempting to coalesce different worldviews on what mindfulness means to people situated in different religious groupings, especially those situated in ethnically diverse and often marginalised communities. In this paper, we present an integrative approach embracing a globally inclusive perspective showing how mindfulness connects with different religious and cultural contexts. In addition, this paper aims to contribute to the development of training and development that will ultimately address more global public health needs.

There is also a need to consider the gaps that appear in the areas of knowledge and process. Oman (2023) states, “It is perhaps therefore unsurprising that the mindfulness field’s support of intercultural competencies appears mixed with regard to implementation, arguably thin and with notable gaps by conventional standards, especially regarding the balancing of knowledge and process” (p. 24). Acknowledging and understanding the different ways in which mindfulness can be perceived likely enhances inclusive intercultural skills of practitioners as well as positively impacting the facilitation and teaching of mindfulness and other forms of meditation.

Developing inclusive intercultural skills of practitioners also requires understanding the differences between the terms faith, religion, and spirituality. Newman (2004) proposes that faith and spirituality overlap, and the perceived differences depend on one’s own positionality. According to Newman’s model, faith is about belief in one’s knowing, and this guides a person’s stance in terms of their religious or spiritual position. Religion becomes a statement about being a part of a defined group and thus creates a sense of action or doing. In contrast, spirituality is about a sense of being and may not require being a part of a specific group. In this paper, we focus more on religiosity but acknowledge the complex ideas associated with, and impinging on, this sense of positionality.

The teaching of mindfulness is often associated with the metaphor that describes the finger that points to the moon (Krägeloh & Medvedev, 2023), whereby practitioners are focussing on the mechanics of practice (the finger) rather than the ultimate goal of mindfulness in its pure form (the moon). According to religious perspectives, the moon could be conceived as a relay station to other transcendent possibilities or other states of consciousness that transcend focussing on observation to creating a meaningful understanding of a power beyond present human conscious awareness. This repositions mindfulness (the moon) as a mediatory process rather than being an end point (Veylanswami, 2019). Mindfulness, thus, has a mediating role, creating a bridge rather than the end point of the meditation practice. Practices related to the secular version of mindfulness start the process of brain, emotion, and body awareness, but the full potential of self-realisation goes beyond this observant self into transcendent consciousness.

Consequently, in this paper, we consider some differing religious perspectives that describe versions of how mindfulness and contemplative meditation practices are conceived and experienced. After which we consider the implications for the teaching of the concept and practice of meditation to community groups by creating a set of propositions. Therefore, our aim is to develop a philosophical and pedagogical debate that can enable teachers and students to embrace the full potential of the practice of meditation. In doing so, we aim to encourage teachers and students to consider diverse thinking on the topics of mindfulness and meditation and, therefore, we aspire to create an expansive dialogue that can enable teachers and students to engage in a richer and more accepting learning landscape.

Religious Perspectives Within the Global Landscape

A recent review of the classification of religions by population and region was conducted by the World Population Review (2023), a United Nations–affiliated taskforce. According to this review, the distribution of religious groups has remained constant over recent times, with current estimates determining that approximately 85% of the world’s people are affiliated with a religious group of some kind. Globally, Christianity (2.38 billion people) remains the most popular, followed by Islam (1.91 billion people), although it has been predicted that Islam may become the largest religion by 2050 (World Population Review, 2023). The current ranking remains consistent with the early estimates from the Pew Research Center (2012a). Classification and adherence can be stated in the following order of occurrence: (1) Christianity, (2) Islam, (3) Hinduism, (4) Buddhism, (5) Folk religions, (6) Other Religions, and (7) Judaism. With a significant group of people classified as unaffiliated (1.19 billion) (World Population Review, 2023).

Effective teaching of mindfulness to community groups, and the development of interreligious competence, requires extensive understanding of belief systems. This includes cultural humility and inclusion, as well as acknowledging that diverse belief systems can co-exist within the same community group (Oman, 2023). Therefore, in the paper, we conduct a relatively complete approach to heighten intercultural competence and create greater community uptake of the systems of mindfulness being disseminated.

Perceptions of the Utility of Mindfulness Across Religions

To further consider the issue of religious pluralism, we acknowledge the complexity of the task at hand, given that in many countries multiple religious belief systems co-exist. For example, in the state of New South Wales in Australia, the top six religious affiliations present within this community are Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Judaism (New South Wales Department of Education, 2021). To add further complexity, within each major religious grouping, there are numerous subtypes, for example Christianity can be subdivided into three main categories, namely those affiliated with the Roman Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox Churches (Rhodes, 2015). Furthermore, these main categories can be further subdivided such as those associated with the Protestant category, e.g. Methodists, Baptists, Presbyterians, and Lutherans (Rhodes, 2015).

In this paper, we cannot include all belief systems and the wide array of permutations in our discussion on religious diversity, but we can acknowledge the complexity of the innumerable views from each religious perspective (and subtypes within the broad categories). There is a vast array of belief systems that co-exist within a seemingly atheistic or agnostic state, given, for example, a large portion of Australians (30 to 50%) could be defined as having no clearly defined religious affiliation (Hughes, 2012). As such, we will consider each broad category in turn and recognise that subtypes and variations of the understanding and practice of meditation inevitably exist. We aim to be critically conscious of the variability amongst cultures and religions within cultural groups (Kumagai & Lypson, 2009). In addition, the following descriptions will highlight that each religious perspective utilise meditation practices that use an explicit mindfulness component or employ a contemplative practice. In the latter system, mindfulness is likely to be present but in a more implicit manner. We begin the discourse by providing the following religious summaries.

Christianity

Christianity comes in various forms, all sharing monotheistic features. The guidelines of practice are outlined in the Bible, with subtle differences depending on the Christian denomination. Nonetheless, Christianity has a definite association with the notion and practice of mindfulness, which has a clear focus on understanding the true nature and will of God as the divine being. Koenig (2023) proposes that contemplative meditation approaches have existed within the Christian faith since its inception, such as, the notion of contemplative prayer being used within many pre-medieval practices. More specifically, there are several practices that are linked to the Christian notion of mindfulness, which include (1) practicing to be immersed in the presence of God; (2) centring prayer focussing on the development of inner silence; (3) breath awareness approaches that develop a union with the sacred word and synthesis with God’s creation of humans; (4) Lectio Divina emphasising the deliberation on the reading of scripture slowly and mindfully; (5) Christian-accommodative Loving Kindness Meditation attentive to the sensitivity and love of God as it exists within the present moment; and (6) emphasising the deliberate integration of God’s presence within every possible waking moment.

Christian-based mindfulness frameworks have also emerged in the literature emphasising the three pillars of mindfulness-based meditation, which include cultivating a presence of mind, being present within the internal state of one’s consciousness, and elevating a sense of acceptance (Symington & Symington, 2012). Symington and Symington acknowledge that a key component for developing mindfulness is the potential for humans to have elevated states of awareness that can allow them to be more present and aligned with the belief and value systems they avow.

Some therapists have incorporated a Christian accommodative mindfulness (CAM) approach that acknowledges the cultural needs of religious populations, such as evangelical Christianity (Jones et al., 2023). In their paper, Jones et al. tackled issues associated with shame, depression, anxiety, and stress. One feature of the CAM approach is to embrace the teachings of Evangelical Christians by exploring the experience of grace, which involves accepting emotions and reducing avoidance. In this way, clients can experience a greater sense of connection with God, as they define God, and by incorporating the act of embracing grace they can then accept themselves.

In detail, the CAM module involves six facets that can inform the way mindfulness meditation with a Christian perspective could be taught. The six facets include (1) a breathing exercise, (2) a body scan exercise, (3) a scriptural meditation, (4) a Jesus Prayer meditation, (5) releasing from shame meditation, and (6) a wisdom of accepted tenderness meditation (Jones et al., 2023). Applying this system, the authors reported encouraging effects indicating good ameliorative outcomes in terms of mental health and gains in spiritual connectedness. The approach further suggested that mindfulness can be shown to be efficacious with conservative evangelical outpatient Christian clients. In addition, this example can create a useful discussion point in a classroom setting.

Islam

The Islamic lens also emphasises a monotheistic tradition and can be categorised according to two broad branches, namely Sunni and Shia (Pew Research Center, 2012b). The two groups have areas in common, such as the belief in a monotheistic God and Mohammed as the key messenger. There are commonly adhered to practices, such as conducting daily prayers, engaging in philanthropy, fasting during the month of Ramadan, and encouraging the pilgrimage to Mecca (Sergie, 2023). The two branches differ in terms of the role of Prophet Muhammad’s descendants and conceptualisations of religious authority and interpretation (Esposito, 2004; Pew Research Center, 2012b; Sergie, 2023).

Koenig (2023) states that Muslims have engaged in a practice of mindfulness since the very inception of Islam. The notion of mindfulness within this religious context suggests that Islamic mindfulness explores the perception of a God as defined by existing religious parameters. More specifically, Islamic meditation aims to focus on the five essences, namely reflection on the greatness of God, gratitude to God, seclusion or the practice of silent mindfulness, Dhikr (repetition of words that praise and glorify God), and Qur’an recitation of selected verses (Koenig, 2023).

Ali et al. (2023) state that the roots of mindfulness can be linked to the practices of the Sufi saint Rumi in the thirteenth century. The essence of the practice relies on accepting both positive and negative experiences, along with inculcating a non-judgmental frame of mind and removing the focus from self to others. This may require learning new behaviours and unlearning old maladaptive habits. According to Rumi (as cited in Mirdal, 2012), it is through contemplation that one can transcend existing boundaries and enter an awareness space called the wild mind, which provides the transformative opportunity that can result in engaging with a more meaningful inner landscape. This process often requires the practice of meditation, poetry, music, and dance (Ali et al., 2023; Mirdal, 2012). In their study, Ali et al. found that mindfulness was linked to the notion of nonattachment and can heighten greater life satisfaction, creating higher levels of positive affect, and lower adverse effects. This is consistent with the Sufi approach of facing reality with acceptance that can lead to the therapeutic process of re-examination and reframing (Mirdal, 2012).

There is one exemplar that typifies how the Islamic approach to meditation can be facilitated, and this illustration can be employed to create deliberation in a learning environment. This example refers to the idea of cultivating muraqaba or being aware of (or watching over) feelings, thoughts, and bodily sensations (Isgandarova, 2019). Isgandarova (2019) has described an Islamic system that can be used in psychotherapy and will also be useful when developing an understanding about how meditation can be facilitated. The person engaging in this type of meditation is the salik who follow their spiritual path and aims to gain knowledge about their essence and their relationship with the divine creator. Therefore, guidance is required to ensure the salik is cultivating mindful attention of their inner feelings and outer surroundings. Guidance is required given there is a preparation phase (e.g. bodily purification, attention of breathing, and environmental preparation) followed by stages connecting with and concentrating on an object or idea (e.g. Divine Attributes or separation of body and soul). This culminates on the stage of tasawwur (imagination), whereby the meditator begins to feel they are in the presence of God. The key concepts in the teaching of this meditation practice include (1) Mushahada (observation) cultivating a sense of presence, (2) Tasawwur (imagination) leading to focussed attention, (3) Tafakkur (contemplation of creation) enabling aspects of creativity, (4) Tadabbur (contemplation of God’s names/attributes) integrating the self with natural laws and the higher power, and (5) Muhasaba (self-assessment) which can optimise possibilities of clarity and serenity.

Hinduism

The majority of Hindus live in India, but there are large communities that practice Hinduism in other regions of the world, such as in Bali, south-west Africa, and the Caribbean (Weightman, 2017). It is a very old religion and protohistoric evidence of its origin can be traced back to artifacts (4000 to 1750 BCE) found in the Indus valley. There are also materials emerging in the second millennium BCE attesting to the emergence of Vedism or the Vedic religion. Weightman (2017) delivers a detailed narrative describing the polytheistic emergence of Hinduism and its various forms. A key facet of the meditation practice within this tradition is for the practitioner to be ideally focussed on the attainment of samadhi, whereby the mind becomes still and focussed (Leonard, 2020).

Koenig (2023) suggests that meditation practices using a Hindu frame of reference most typically focus the mind on a tangible entity (i.e. object, word, or sound), which can then be aligned with an inner spiritual focus with a clear link to an aspect of the Divine consciousness. More specifically, meditation practices can be used to focus on a mantra (meaning word), employing Yoga (involving physical postural awareness and contemplative exercises), or cultivating the self-inquiry method (determining the true “I”) (Hannay, 2023). The original meaning of Yoga was the notion of union with the aim of determining an authentic understanding of reality (Sadhguru, 2022). In modern times, Yoga has been linked to postural awareness and there are numerous branches of yoga, such as Karma, Hatha, and Kundalini Yoga (Sadhguru, 2022).

Mindfulness, according to a secular definition, relegates meditation to a process of paying non-judgmental attention to momentary experiences (Swaminathan & Rathnasabapathy, 2023). From a Hindu perspective, mindfulness may be perceived as a preliminary method or the early stage of the development of a higher consciousness (Hannay, 2023). The aim of achieving a higher consciousness is to cultivate an unencumbered union with the Divine, which reveals itself as the universal, loving consciousness that exists within us (Veylanswami, 2019).

Teaching meditation practices aligned with the Hindu religious practice is complex given the multitude of methods available (Razzaq, 2021). Valuable learning discussions could occur in classroom settings around how a meditative system typically involves a set of identifiable steps that involve aspects of cultivating attention, concentration, mindfulness meditation, contemplation, and self-realisation (Veylanswami, 2019). In addition, meaningful learning conversations could occur as to how mindfulness meditation is a mechanism for achieving self-realisation, rather than an end in itself (Veylanswami, 2019). In its ultimate form, mindfulness is part of the process that creates the opportunity to develop a “natural and eternal way of living aiming at spiritual liberation, knowledge of self and enlightenment, transcending any religious boundaries” (Swaminathan & Rathnasabapathy, 2023, p. 411).

Buddhism

Mindfulness as conceived today is often aligned with Buddhist origins (Leonard, 2020). There is considerable discussion regarding how secular interventions (e.g. Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction or MBSR) have developed by incorporating some of the pragmatic meditation practices used in the Vipassanā tradition of Buddhism (Schlieter, 2017). Schlieter explains why the Buddhist meditation practice can be easily adopted as a secular practice. For example, Buddhism is a non-theistic religious approach and is thus aligned with a historical figure not a deity. In addition, the meditation practices can be easily adapted to developing insight for those experiencing mental health and stress-related problems. The Buddhist meditation elements can be modularised so that the underlying belief system can be put into the background so that the foreground can concentrate on practical clinical applications, such as becoming awake to one’s physical and cognitive states. This sense of awakening has clear therapeutic possibilities especially when the focus becomes temporarily focussed on the here and now. It is reasonable to assume that the clinical data suggests that secularised mindfulness meditation approaches, emerging from the Buddhist tradition, have therapeutic efficacy (Chang et al., 2004; Schlieter, 2017).

Buddhism has two main branches, Theravāda and Mahāyāna, each with its own particular meaning and practice of mindfulness, although a third category is often proposed, namely the tantric Vajrayāna tradition of Tibet (Watt, 2017). Moreover, within each tradition, there are many further subgroups. Watt (2017) draws on the works of John Dunne, and considers the concepts of constructivism and innatism, to develop an understanding of how practice may differ between the two schools of thought. First, constructivism can be aligned with the Theravāda approach, which emphasises how mindfulness can be structured by following a systematic process of development. Second, innatism is more aligned with the Mahāyāna insistence that awakening is already present in one’s mind, and thus practice aims to uncover one’s innate Buddhahood.

Bodhi (2013) explains the complexity of defining mindfulness according to a generic version of the Buddhist tradition. He states:

Mindfulness is the chief factor in the practice of satipa hāna, the best known system of Buddhist meditation. In descriptions of satipa hāna two terms constantly recur: mindfulness (sati) and clear comprehension (sampajañña). An understanding of these terms based on the canonical texts is important not only from a philological angle but because such understanding has major bearings on the actual practice of meditation. The word sati originally meant ‘memory,’ but the Buddha ascribed to this old term a new meaning determined by the aims of his teaching. This meaning, the author holds, might best be characterized as ‘lucid awareness.’ (Bodhi, 2013, p. 19).

It is from these roots that the modern secular definition was derived (Swaminathan & Rathnasabapathy, 2023). In addition, Koenig (2023) affirms that Buddhism can be interlinked with the Hindu tradition, and there are demonstrable links between Buddhist and Hindu meditation practices with metamorphic differences. These similarities and differences would provide valuable discussion points within a classroom setting.

It is well established that secular mindfulness meditation programmes are clearly aligned with an individual’s development of mindfulness (e.g. Frisk, 2012). Nonetheless, in general terms, mindfulness is one thread of the noble eightfold path that guides the practice of Buddhist meditation. The eight paths that define the practice can be described in terms of right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration (Bodhi, 2010). Right mindfulness (Sammā Sati) suggests that the truth of all things can be directly accessed through observation of one’s own experiences (Bodhi, 2010). In addition, it can be cultivated through engaging the four foundations of mindfulness, related to developing awareness of the body, feelings, states of mind, and phenomena.

There are numerous methods involved in the teaching of meditation from a Buddhist standpoint, which can create useful connections and subject matter for learning with links to evaluating the efficacy of varying approaches. For example, Burke (2012) describes zen and vipassanā methods of meditation. In the Burke study, the Zen practice included sitting with generalised awareness to gain a sense of one’s state of being. They cultivated a traditional zazen seated meditation posture that often requires using a zafu or cushion. The focus of the practice is cultivating an awareness of presence of mind. In the vipassanā method, the participants of the study cultivated silent observation by observing the breath.

Judaism

Sager (2020) proposes that, in Judaism, the teaching of meditation practices can typically be linked to three facets, namely mantra meditation, contemplation, and nothingness. In the mantra approach, a person focuses on chanting a meaningful word or phrase, with the intent to be closer to their concept of God. Contemplation (or kavanah) is a process that aims to cultivate greater inner understanding through the development of self-understanding. In the Kabbalah tradition, a form of Judaic mysticism, meditation practices incorporate the use of visualisation, which allows the meditators an opportunity to be more deeply unified with the divine entity in the present moment (Koenig, 2023).

Self-understanding (or hitbonenuth), a contemplative meditation practice, can be aided by focussing on a profound idea or inanimate entity, with the purpose of developing a deeper understanding of self. In Renewal and Hasidic communities, self-seclusion creates the personalised opportunity for communication with a divine entity and cultivation of self-realisation on a day-to-day basis (Koenig, 2023). The notion of nothingness can be enhanced through practices also requiring self-isolation (hitbodeduth) or solitude. When meditating in solitude, the outer shell becomes alone so that external distractions are minimised allowing for a greater sense of inner inquiry. These case studies, concepts, and practices can be useful starting points for discussion in a learning environment. For example, the notion of nothingness has not explicitly been revealed in our discussion thus far, although connections with Taoism and Buddhism (and their concepts of nothingness and emptiness) may be useful in terms of creating a comparative dialogue (see, for example, Liu & Berger, 2014).

Earth-Based Spirituality, Animistic, or Indigenous Worldviews

In this section, we have opted to use the term earth-based spirituality or animistic worldviews, which we believe is a more inclusive descriptor rather than the term folk religions, which is often used in this context. Earth-based spirituality or animistic worldviews occur across diverse belief systems (Swancutt, 2019), and these systems can be linked to both mindfulness and contemplative meditation practices. They may be conceived as religious perspectives or belief systems that existed before established Eastern or Western colonisation (Halverson, 2011). They can be conceived as pre-colonised (Eastern or Western) Indigenous views or understandings (Berryman et al., 2022), such as pagan, druidic, and shamanistic belief systems. In our analysis, we have taken examples from some of the continents not often mentioned in the discussion around mindfulness, namely the belief systems attributed to the Indigenous peoples of the Australasian, American, and African continents.

In pre-colonial times, the Indigenous peoples of Aotearoa/New Zealand (Māori or tāngata whenua) cultivated societies based on shared in-depth knowledge of, and respect for, their land (Berryman et al., 2022). Therefore, the belief system was integrally linked to the inclusive symbiotic relationships between land, people, plants, animals, and gods (Berryman et al., 2022). For Māori, mindfulness practices aimed at promoting the process of healing and wellbeing are integrally linked to the ideas of Te Ao Wairua (the spiritual world) and Te Ao Turoa (the natural world) (Mental Health Foundation, 2023). Māori worldviews were based around concepts such as tapu (protection by adhering to the notion of sacredness and spiritual guidelines) and noa (free from spiritual restrictions and is not sacred), with each concept being applied and understood to operate in an ecologically balanced system (Berryman et al., 2022; Mental Health Foundation, 2023; Te Kāwanatanga o Aotearoa/New Zealand Government, 2023). There are specific Māori cultural concepts that can support the practice of mindfulness. These include “manaakitanga (respect, generosity and care for others), aroha (love, compassion and deep affection), kaitiakitanga (look after, care for and protect), and karakia (recite blessings, forgiveness and compassion)” (Mental Health Foundation, 2023, p. 1).

Aboriginal meditation as practiced by the Indigenous peoples of Australia further illustrates the ecological nature of contemplation and its link to mindfulness. Dreamtime is one concept that influences the practice of meditation as it embodies how life was created according to Aboriginal culture, how the universe came to be, how humans were created, and how the Creator envisaged the function of humans (Price-Williams & Gaines, 1994). Roussos (2017) presents the case of Ms Baumann who described an Aboriginal contemplative and mindfulness meditative practice, called Dadirri. This word comes from a select group of people living in the Daly River region, Nauiyu, south of Darwin, Australia. The meditation practice involves the cultivation of deep listening and silent awareness, which acknowledges the sense of belonging, through being aware of where one comes from. Through the cultivation of deep silence, people can have a deep connection with themselves and with nature. An aspect of the meditation practice requires being centred in the present moment, but being aware of everything that impinges on the personal self, that includes the natural and spiritual forces within and around us. The purpose of the practice is to tap into the spring within, through stillness and patience that can be likened to the spirit of a divine entity (Ungunmerr, 1988).

North American Indigenous peoples have had a long history of meditation prior to being colonised by the Europeans. According to Timothy and Conover (2006), most Native American traditional worldviews had three main tenets, namely that all nature is sacred, all living entities within nature have a specific and identifiable role, and all living entities have a right to life. In the case of the requirements of food, the last tenet can be rationalised according to need and by seeking permission from spiritual entities. In addition, there is an acceptance that all things perceptible can also be considered to have spiritual value. An example of a meditation practice from this tradition is called the dream catcher meditation (Robbins, 2001). This practice has several phases that interweave the notions of mindfulness and contemplative meditation practices. First, the dream catcher in its material form is conceived, which provides an opportunity to reflect on one’s inner life and the interconnected aspect emanating from this life. Second, ancestral influence is acknowledged as being a key part of the meditation. Third, the meditation reflects on the aspect of differentiation between the self and the significant others who impact the self. Fourth, the significance of place or land as a spiritual influence is recognised. Fifth, appreciation of significant others in supporting one’s personal journey is embraced. Finally, there is often a requirement to face and come to terms with one’s own life events (sometimes traumatic in nature). These six steps lead to the process of mindful integration.

A similar practice of meditation can be found amongst the central and south American Indigenous populations. Shepard (2004) describes meditation within the context of shamanism and the consideration of the collective whole in which people are bounded by self and the forces that sway internal and external consequences. The shaman works with the spirits and the forces of nature to assuage any wrongdoing to ensure people live a balanced ecological life. Shepard mentions the Matsigenka who believe shamans are guardians who have transcendent powers and who work with seemingly uncontrolled natural phenomena, such as lightning, earthquakes, and flooding. In Colombia, the Kogi are represented by priests who often enter trance like states using narcotics to see the “true” nature of reality that transcends ordinary vision. Hence, the reflection on self is extended beyond the notion of non-judgmental observation, but in this cultural group the nature of self is obscured and true insight into self can only occur through shaman meditation. This then allows the opportunity for reprogramming the true nature of self to create a system of equilibrium.

Brookes (2017) presents a useful case that highlights an ecological meditation practice that can be linked to the above meditation examples. Brookes’ example focuses on a practice with traditional links to Ethiopia, Egypt, Palestine, and India. The religious system in question, Ausar Auset Society (a Pan-African religious organisation), draws on the benefits of numerous practices, such as yoga, meditation, astrology, vegetarianism, divination, and philosophy. These practices aim to develop a holistic approach to create an integrated and purposeful self. Therefore, meditation is a vehicle for gaining insight into a sense of divine intelligence. The practice of meditation requires being in a nonthreatening space that can allow for the opportunity to still the mind. Thoughts are observed seemingly without judgment or criticism to allow the mind to enter a trance like state of internal quietude and peace. The Kemetic meditation practice, which has origins in ancient Egypt, allows for meditation and yogic postures to be used to tap into divine energies (Dienstman, 2021).

Therefore, teaching meditation practices will depend on the tradition, locality, and belief systems being adhered to. In earth-based spirituality, animistic, or indigenous worldviews, there are diverse methods of teaching that are linked to the understanding of the spiritual forces at work within the universe, one’s own self, and the observable natural phenomena that envelops the human condition. In reference to teaching, discussion around the common themes across these approaches would be a useful starting point followed by how they may differ. From this discussion, dialogue concerning how these approaches may differ from monotheistic and polytheistic viewpoints would be valuable, especially given the sense that humans are directly aligned to divine entities in the theistic paradigms whereby people are often given the right to have dominion over entities considered less revered (Armstrong, 2022).

Further Implications for the Teaching of Mindfulness

The current teaching of mindfulness in Western countries emphasises a tendency to embraces a secular notion of mindfulness practice. This secular notion suggests mindfulness can be practiced without alignment to a specific culture or religion (Kirmayer, 2015). However, as Kirmayer aptly states:

Mindfulness has been portrayed as something that is independent of culture and context but, to the extent it depends on having certain background knowledge, intentions, and aspirations, it may not be realizable in any culture-free way. Dis-embedding Buddhist or other religious practices from their social and historical contexts therefore is likely to lead to misunderstandings. It may also limit the possibility of identifying relevant neurobiological correlates of meditative states or practices because these too are a function of relational processes with specific cultural histories and modes of embodiment and enactment … Ignoring context means that we end up with a bland or blind approach to mindfulness that lacks the sensitivity to context that is the mark of wisdom (p. 462).

Therefore, the idea of teaching mindfulness as a purely secular practice may dilute the full potential of the mindfulness practice. Nonetheless, it must be acknowledged that for some people, mindfulness is simply a means to allay adverse stress and pain and to be used purely as a therapeutic modality (Kirmayer, 2015). To extend this view, we assert that mindfulness can be utilised in a more expansive manner. In this paper, we have considered the religious contexts of various meditation practices, with the aim of deliberating upon religious and cultural factors when developing a plan for teaching and practicing meditation.

In the teaching of mindfulness meditation, it is crucial, we believe, to consider the religious context in which the practice is being taught and the specific aspirations and histories of the individual practitioner. In our view, this will increase uptake and understanding of the practice. Oman (2023) proposes that there is some recognition that mindfulness practices exist within diverse traditions, and that there is an acknowledgement that they also exist outside of Buddhism, which is consistent with our view. Moreover, Oman suggests that mainstream mindfulness literature has not explored the depth and full potential of these practices, and this is important as religious belief systems play an important function for many people. Therefore, developing culturally tailored versions and cross-cultural dialogue has critical value. In this paper, we develop this idea in terms of how mindfulness could be taught in a more inclusive and expansive manner.

To guide the teaching of mindfulness meditation within a cultural group and its affiliations to religion, we suggest a set of propositions aligned with, and building on, the work of Oman (2023). The aim of these propositions is to develop a synthesised dialogue by extending the focussed descriptions of each religious practice. Therefore, the subsequent discussion explores how meditation (mindfulness and contemplative) practices can be coalesced to ensure a more comprehensive teaching practice for students. Accordingly, with this inclusive focus, students with diverse belief systems can feel more included in the teaching and learning of meditation.

Proposition 1: There is a Need for Supporting Professional/Social Intercultural and Interreligious Awareness and Competence

It is well established that human societies are built up of cultural units (De Munck & Korotayev, 2000) and within these cultural units are identifiable belief systems. Therefore, understanding and acknowledging differences amongst the majority and minority views worldwide will likely incur greater interreligious awareness and competence. The notion of critical consciousness allows people to engage with historical, religious, and political forces that have an impact on their current notion of self-awareness (Acosta, 2007). The earlier application of critical consciousness was to develop awareness of marginalisation amongst oppressed peoples (Rapa & Godfrey, 2023). However, this concept can be extended to include engagement in the practice of cultivating self-awareness for all or moving towards a sense of collective consciousness. Collective consciousness can be perceived as embracing explicitly shared human experiences, while the collective unconsciousness contains implicit belief systems that synchronously bind communities together beyond the conscious mind (Germine, 1997; Jung, 1963). Being self-aware of who we are and where we come from is a crucial step in developing professional/social intercultural and interreligious competence and is linked to the process of being aware of the collective conscious and unconscious realms. Therefore, it is clear that in the teaching of mindfulness it is useful to know who we are and how we came to be, and to consider the influence of the collective conscious and unconscious on how we understand our sense of reality. Therefore, professional, social intercultural, and interreligious competence could be seen as the foundations of critical and collective consciousness.

The Indigenous peoples of New Zealand (Māori) have a proverb (whakataukī) that states, “Kia whakatōmuri te haere whakamua” which translates as “I walk backwards into the future with my eyes fixed on my past” (Rameka, 2017). Therefore, according to the Māori worldview, the notion of time cannot be separated into past, present, and future as all are intertwined. This idea is different to the linear idea of time typically implied in Western understandings which involves travelling into the future from the present with the past behind us. Therefore, the concept of time is defined according to cultural understanding described within a religious landscape. Practitioners of mindfulness can learn about the various religious landscapes that define the notion of time and more specifically, how this may differ from the secularised notion of the present moment (Kabat-Zinn, 1994). Observing the present moment will likely be coloured, whether consciously or unconsciously, by our cultural heritage and by the way our ancestors have made sense of who we are as a people. Knowing who we are and where we came from will likely heighten authentic understanding and promote professional/social intercultural and interreligious competence.

There are several ways in which professional/social intercultural and interreligious awareness and competence could be taught. In their article, Vilà et al. (2020) present some very pragmatic teaching strategies that could support this learning. They suggest that reading material from different perspectives be presented to students and students need to be supported in their critical reading of such material. In addition, lively debates can be encouraged so that open and constructive conversations can incur. As a part of this conversation, students can start to dismantle stereotypes and be cognisant of diversity regarding the practice and understanding of meditation. Some of the ideas presented above will enable students to create insights into what meditation means to people emanating from differing religious and cultural perspectives. It is also important that the collective wisdom within the learning environment be embraced so that students from different faith backgrounds are encouraged and supported in their stories and experiences of meditation.

Proposition 2: Mindfulness is Deeply Rooted in Religious Tradition with Belief in a Divine Deity or Deities. Teaching Mindfulness from a Secular Perspective Will Only Meet the Needs and Expectations of the Practitioner Half-Way

Let us return to the idea of the finger pointing to the moon (Krägeloh & Medvedev, 2023). If the moon is depicted as the end point, this negates the possibilities of the universe beyond the moon that contains all that we can categorise as space and time. This categorisation is based on the human conceptual and empirical ability to describe the space and time elements that include all matter and energy as we understand it. If the hand connected to the finger represents the idea of meditation practice and the finger depicts the techniques used to develop mindfulness, which leads to the secular moon, then the idea of space and time beyond the moon could depict further realties not easily defined and measured, and this is where the religious perspectives may have greater meaning and utility. Scientific developments in astrophysics often remind us of how much we are yet to learn about the universe. For example, in recent years, physics has discovered that the observable matter in the universe makes up a mere 5% of the universe’s total mass and energy — the rest has been called dark matter and dark energy about which we know very little (The National Aeronautics & Space Administration, 2023). Therefore, we can conclude that there is a great deal we do not currently know or can quantify, which is certainly beyond the observable moon.

Furthermore, if we take the theistic approach of Christianity, for example, we can begin to understand and extend the role of secular mindfulness. Koenig (2023) depicts the meditative process as a series of possibilities that can be applied to the finger and hand in terms of selective prayers and ensuring one’s practice is aligned with biblical scripture (Lectio Divina). The moon then becomes the visual finite sensation of union with a higher power defined as God and the vast universe beyond the moon becomes a process of immersing oneself in the presence of God. Thomas Aquinas, the great philosopher and theologian of the middle ages, presents the development of mind as the synthesis between the material person (matter) immersed within nature (form) and being subsumed within the divine (Henning et al., 2023). Hence to teach the practice of mindfulness, it is important and likely more fulfilling to see mindfulness as a relay station that can connect with other belief systems that provide the opportunity to build on physical and sensory reality into the domain of the less easily defined but meaningful aspects of the supreme consciousness.

A further area that would need to be considered is the way in which mindfulness meditation is being applied. In the literature, there is a growing discussion on first- and second-generation mindfulness-based interventions (Van Gordon et al., 2015). The first-generation approaches focus on the explicit application of Kabat-Zinn’s definition of mindfulness (Kabat-Zinn, 2015) as applied within certain clinical intervention, such as the MBSR programme. Therefore, first-generation techniques have an explicit clinical and secular focus, as they concentrate on maladaptive cognitive and affective processes (Van Gordon et al., 2015). In second-generation approaches, there appears to be a more active element whereby participants are enabled in terms of observing, understanding, and potentially freeing oneself of present moment experiences. This allows for participants to respond in a more adaptive manner leading to the potential for action (Van Gordon et al., 2015). Given this potential for adaption, the second-generation approach enables mindfulness meditation to be taught alongside other meditative practices (e.g. ethical awareness and compassion meditation) (Van Gordon et al., 2015). Along these lines, we emphasise that the first-generation approaches focus on clinical efficacy, while second-generation approaches are more adaptive in nature and suggest that changes can occur with the application of intent, which allows for a further clinical potentiality.

We propose that there may be the opportunity of a third-generation approach allowing for more understanding around the potentiality of self-realisation. The evolving nature of teaching within this area is consistent with the ideas promulgated by Oman (2023). By creating more expansive possibilities allows learners to develop their cultural competence, cultural humility, and intercultural competence (Oman, 2023). Accordingly, groups being taught mindfulness meditation can synthesise a range of knowledge systems, which will promote the interaction process skills that can engage at a more expansive and inclusive manner by including different belief systems within the ongoing discourse (Oman, 2023).

Proposition 3: The Secular Perspective of Teaching Mindfulness Needs to Expand to Include Ecological and Wider Religious Influences that Originate in Earth-Based Spirituality or Animistic Worldviews

As aforementioned, the earth-based or animistic worldview premise may perceive mindfulness practice as being a portal providing introspection into self and that realisation creates meaningful connections pertaining to ancestors and natural phenomena. Therefore, the earth-based or animistic worldview extends notions of self-discovery beyond the boundary of Earth into the vast universe of matter and time. If we revisit the secular definition provided earlier, namely that mindfulness refers to “…moment-to-moment, non-judgmental awareness, cultivated by paying attention in a specific way, that is, in the present moment, and as non-reactively, as non-judgmentally, and as openheartedly as possible” (Kabat-Zinn, 2015, p. 1481), we can begin to understand points of difference between this strategy and the strategies aligned to earth-based or animistic worldviews. When teaching mindfulness, discussion on these points of difference will be helpful for students who have an earth-based or animistic worldview.

It is important to acknowledge that earth-based belief systems are deeply relational and consider all things as having a life, whereby the physical world can be perceived as containing innumerable spiritual qualities attributed to all living entities. Therefore, from this worldview, individualistic orientation neglects the possible opportunity for symbiotic relationships to exist between all entities and over all potential time constructs (past, present, and future) (Neal, 1985; Peterson, 2011). It is envisaged that through inclusive discussion, students with an earth-based or animistic worldview will likely feel more included if their view is acknowledged and respected (Halverson, 2011), especially when the discourse occurs in relation to majority and dominant worldviews linked to the major religious and secular views.

One of the challenges in developing secular mindfulness practices amongst people aligned with the earth-based spirituality or animistic worldviews is that it requires significant self-reorientation. It is crucial that earth-based and animistic worldviews be included in conversations concerning how meditation practices can be experienced, given that their worldview includes influential factors connected to the immediate and far-reaching social and physical environments and, furthermore, how personal meditation can be affected by connections with ancestors and wider family units. In this way, the teaching and learning of meditation (mindfulness and contemplative) will enter a more inclusive discussion resulting in a deeper connection into realms that open the senses, which may provide knowledge of a personally perceived authentic truth. This sense of inclusion and acknowledgement is clearly linked to the ideas proposed by Kirmayer (2015). Kirmayer proposes that meditation practices are profoundly linked to the way the mind is developed as aligned with deeply embedded expectations and interpretations of what we as humans consider metaphysically significant. Kirmayer states:

Understanding how mindfulness changes experience may require not simply exploring the phenomenology from first-person perspective, or identifying the brain correlates of particular states or outcomes, but also mapping the social worlds in which experiences of calm attentiveness, nonattachment, equanimity, and compassion are enacted. This broader regard might shift some attention away from mindfulness to consider other aspects of meditative, religious, and spiritual practice (p. 459).

Secular perspectives on how mindfulness can be taught have a direct clinical application alongside showing a direct, definitive, promising, and measurable effect (Goldberg et al., 2019). The secular perspective of teaching mindfulness, thus, has demonstrable clinical application; however, this demonstrable effect would likely be more convincing and inclusive if the clinical focus could be synthesised with belief systems from all peoples in global society. This would include those belief systems often neglected by mainstream literature, such as those related to earth-based spirituality or animistic worldviews.

Proposition 4: Cultural Acknowledgement, Inclusion, Responsivity, and Specificity Can Better Define and Delineate the Role of Mindfulness Meditation

If we revisit, once again, the notion of the finger pointing to the moon, religious perspectives would likely be consistent with the hand. The finger could be depicted as the methods or techniques being applied for developing self-understanding. The moon is then one of the vast arrays of matter and space existing within the solar system, although it can be perceived as a speck of dust in relation to the vast universe. This proposition aims for an inclusive process by which religious practices and belief systems find common ground. For example, the Japanese Aikido martial art system aligns two religious perspectives, namely Buddhism and Shinto. Aikido aims to develop the body, mind, and spirit. In Aikido, there are five principles (Saotome, 1993): (1) all paths lead to the unified sense of universal mind; (2) the truth of the universe needs to be integrated with how we live our lives; (3) the intent is to synthesise the notion of humanity with universal consciousness; (4) each individual’s path aims to become one with the universe; and (5) the ultimate path includes strength and compassion aiming for perfection and integration with an ultimate higher power.

This inclusive view clearly resonates across religious groups and engages earth-based spirituality or animistic worldviews. The Aikido example allows us to consider humans as being a part of a higher purpose that could only be glimpsed through practice and acceptance of a universal power. According to this example, the finger metaphor becomes the Aikido practice, the moon the experiential glimpses of the universal mind and consciousness. But the true essence of the universal intelligence transcends the moon motif and embraces all space and time. This approach suggests a three-tiered process towards attaining the notion of self-realisation.

Therefore, a situated view of mindfulness may tie together aspects of meditation practice with all the elements that contribute to the person’s lived experience including their belief system (Halverson, 2011). Thus, secularising mindfulness, as in MBSR programmes (Kabat-Zinn, 1994), may create a useful mechanism for dealing with a specific illness within a clinical context, but may fall short of the full potential of meditation in attaining far-reaching possibilities, especially with individuals who aspire for self-realisation. Hence, the secular practice needs to co-exist with other aspects of culture (such as, with the example of Aikido), so that there are no disconnections between meditation practice, beliefs systems, historical influences, and cultural nuances and potentialities.

Conclusion

This commentary has made unique contributions in several ways to the discourse on religio-cultural mindfulness competence. Firstly, the paper has created an inclusive commentary by considering worldviews from major belief systems. These viewpoints (and others not mentioned in this paper that may emerge in discussion) need to be included in the teaching and learning of meditation (both mindfulness and contemplative). Second, we have created a set of propositions to guide the teaching and critical evaluation of meditation (mindfulness and contemplative). These propositions became apparent after reading Oman’s commentary (2023) and further reading in the field. The paper creates a platform for curricula development in this area, aiming for a more integrated, inclusive approach to learning meditation. In doing so, we also suggest that discussion in this area has many layers, across cultures and religions, across preferred meditation practices, and linked to situational and temporal factors. From this discourse, we assert that a more comprehensive pedagogical model of inclusion could be developed and this would be of significant value to education and public health.

The function of meditation likely has many possibilities and actualities, which can be depicted in a three-tiered interconnecting model (Fig. 1), building in the idea of the Aikido example. First, the role of meditation likely begins with the development and learning of techniques, practices, and mind–body systems and being a part of a like-minded meditation community. Secondly, the practitioner addresses their health needs by cultivating and engaging in mindfulness practices as taught through many different secular and religious modalities. The underlying expectations of the practices are discussed and explored to reinforce the rationale for meditation practice. This will likely lead to greater justification of the mindfulness practice and may confirm a personal rationale for being part of a meditation group immersed within a religious tradition. These processes may lead to greater self-awareness and suggest that focussing on mindfulness practice will engender therapeutic benefits, such as inculcating mental and physical health gains. Lastly, there is the idea of an awareness of achieving one’s spiritual goals, which can be described as attaining self-realisation. This outcome is less easily defined and may be perceived as a path that aims for a developing a personalised meaningful sense of the true nature of things or self-transcendence. This last phase is a spiritual path that considers the notion of being at one with universal consciousness.

Fig. 1
figure 1

A three-tiered interconnecting model traversing the elements of technique development, mindfulness cultivation, and self-realisation

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From a public health perspective and consistent with the ideas promulgated by Oman (2023), the development of the stages and facets of meditation practice as invoked by religious practice can inform the practitioner that the goals of secular mindfulness can be extended. For someone who simply wants to allay stress provoking incidents within their workplace — a few mindfulness techniques may be sufficient (aiming for Tiers 1 and 2 only, Fig. 1). For someone who wishes to have a spiritual experience, the teaching of mindfulness practice then needs to consider the third tier of Fig. 1. However, all practitioners need to be aware of the possibilities of meditation practices (whether defined as mindfulness or contemplative) that may transcend clinical application suggesting that a spiritual dimension may result in higher levels of wellbeing rather than focussing on alleviating symptoms.

Moreover, practitioners need to be realistically aware of the requirements to achieve each tier and the outcomes associated with those achievements. This is where the idea of supporting professional/social intercultural and interreligious competence becomes important so that people can choose to direct their practice. As John Donne (1962) states, “no man is an island entire of itself ….”. When applied to the notion of public health and mindfulness, this quotation invites a more integrated programme involved in the teaching and learning of mindfulness, combining aspects of meditation, religion, secular views, and community. This approach will likely yield more inclusive and widespread opportunities for developing the individual resulting in greater collective wellbeing.