Abstract
Objectives
Self-compassion is theorized to be a state of mind representing the balance of compassionate self-responding (CS; kindness, common humanity and mindfulness) and uncompassionate self-responding (UCS; self-judgment, isolation and over-identification) in times of distress. However, there is an on-going debate about this conceptualization, with some arguing that CS and UCS operate separately and independently. A variation on this view is that the operation of self-compassion differs by culture: In Eastern dialectic cultures like China and Japan, individuals are thought to experience CS and UCS simultaneously but not in Western non-dialectic cultures like the U.S. Our research investigated this issue by examining how state self-compassion operates within individuals in both the U.S. and Japan.
Method
We conducted latent profile analyses of state self-compassion both before (n = 855) and after (n = 455) a self-compassion mood induction designed to increase CS.
Results
In both cultures, individuals were classified into one of three latent profiles only: Low State Self-Compassion (low CS and high UCS), Moderate State Self-Compassion (moderate CS and UCS), and High State Self-Compassion (high CS and low UCS). We did not find any individuals with a profile characterized by simultaneously high levels of CS and UCS. This was true even after a self-compassion mood induction, although the distribution of people in the three profiles changed reflecting a simultaneous increase in CS and decrease in UCS.
Conclusions
Results suggest that CS and UCS operate holistically and not independently within individuals in both dialectical and nondialectical cultures.
Preregistration
This study is not pre-registered.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
The datasets for this research are freely available in https://osf.io/qtxz6/.
References
Chio, F. H. N., Mak, W. W. S., & Yu, B. C. L. (2021). Meta-analytic review on the differential effects of self-compassion components on well-being and psychological distress: The moderating role of dialecticism on self-compassion. Clinical Psychology Review, 85, 101986. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.101986
Clark, S. L., & Muthén, B. (2009). Relating latent class analysis results to variables not included in the analysis. Retrieved from http://www.statmodel.com/download/relatinglca.pdf. Accesed 26th October
Cortina, J. M. (1993). What is coefficient alpha? An examination of theory and applications. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(1), 98–104. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.78.1.98
Ferguson, S. L., G. Moore, E. W., & Hull, D. M. (2020). Finding latent groups in observed data: A primer on latent profile analysis in Mplus for applied researchers. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 44(5), 458–468. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025419881721
Ferrari, M., Ciarrochi, J., Yap, K., et al. (2022a). Embracing the complexity of our inner worlds: Understanding the dynamics of self-compassion and self-criticism. Mindfulness, 13(7), 1652–1661. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-022-01897-5
Ferrari, M., Beath, A., Einstein, D. A., Yap, K., & Hunt, C. (2022b). Gender differences in self-compassion: a latent profile analysis of compassionate and uncompassionate self-relating in a large adolescent sample. Current Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03408-0
Finlay-Jones, A., Xie, Q., Huang, X., Ma, X., & Guo, X. (2018). A pilot study of the 8-week Mindful Self-Compassion training program in a Chinese community sample. Mindfulness, 9(3), 993–1002. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0838-3
Friis, A. M., Johnson, M. H., Cutfield, R. G., & Consedine, N. S. (2016). Kindness matters: A randomized controlled trial of a mindful self-compassion intervention improves depression, distress, and HbA1c among patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care, 39(11), 1963–1971. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc16-0416
Germer, C. K., & Neff, K. D. (2019). Teaching the Mindful Self-Compassion program: A guide for professionals. Guilford Press.
Guo, L., Zhang, J., Mu, L., & Ye, Z. (2020). Preventing postpartum depression with Mindful Self-Compassion intervention: A randomized control study. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 208(2), 101–107. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0000000000001096
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Sage.
Jiménez-Gómez, L., Yela, J. R., Crego, A., Melero-Ventola, A. R., & Gómez-Martínez, M. Á. (2022). Effectiveness of the Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) vs. The Mindful Self-Compassion (MSC) programs in clinical and health psychologist trainees. Mindfulness, 13(3), 584–599. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-021-01814-2
Keefer, K. V., Parker, J. D. A., & Wood, L. M. (2012). Trait emotional intelligence and university graduation outcomes: Using latent profile analysis to identify students at risk for degree noncompletion. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 30(4), 402–413. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282912449446
Kim, J. J., Parker, S. L., Doty, J. R., Cunnington, R., Gilbert, P., & Kirby, J. N. (2020). Neurophysiological and behavioural markers of compassion. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 6789. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-63846-3
Lanza, S. T., & Collins, L. M. (2008). A new SAS procedure for latent transition analysis: Transitions in dating and sexual risk behavior. Developmental Psychology, 44(2), 446–456. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.44.2.446
Lo, Y., Mendell, N. R., & Rubin, D. B. (2001). Testing the number of components in a normal mixture. Biometrika, 88(3), 767–778. https://doi.org/10.1093/biomet/88.3.767
López, A., Sanderman, R., Smink, A., Zhang, Y., van Sonderen, E., Ranchor, A., & Schroevers, M. J. (2015). A reconsideration of the Self-Compassion Scale’s total score: Self-compassion versus self-criticism. PloS ONE, 10(7), e0132940. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0132940
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (2010). Cultures and selves: A cycle of mutual constitution. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5(4), 420–430. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691610375557
Marsh, H. W., Lüdtke, O., Trautwein, U., & Morin, A. J. S. (2009). Classical latent profile analysis of academic self-concept dimensions: Synergy of person-and variable-centered approaches to theoretical models of self-concept. Structural Equation Modeling, 16(2), 191–225. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510902751010
Miyagawa, Y., Tóth-Király, I., Knox, M. C., Taniguchi, J., & Niiya, Y. (2022). Development of the Japanese version of the State Self-Compassion Scale (SSCS-J). Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 779318. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.779318
Morin, A. J. S., Meyer, J. P., Creusier, J., & Biétry, F. (2016). Multiple-group analysis of similarity in latent profile solutions. Organizational Research Methods, 19(2), 231–254. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428115621148
Muris, P., Otgaar, H., & Petrocchi, N. (2016). Protection as the mirror image of psychopathology: Further critical notes on the Self-Compassion Scale. Mindfulness, 7(3), 787–790. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0509-9
Muris, P., Otgaar, H., & Pfattheicher, S. (2019). Stripping the forest from the rotten trees: Compassionate self-responding is a way of coping, but reduced uncompassionate self-responding mainly reflects psychopathology. Mindfulness, 10(1), 196–199. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-1030-0
Neff, K. D. (2003). The development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion. Self and Identity, 2(3), 223–250. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309027
Neff, K. D. (2003). Self-compassion: An alternative conceptualization of a healthy attitude toward oneself. Self and Identity, 2(2), 85–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309032
Neff, K. D. (2016). The Self-Compassion Scale is a valid and theoretically coherent measure of self-compassion. Mindfulness, 7(1), 264–274. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-015-0479-3
Neff, K. D. (2022). The differential effects fallacy in the study of self-compassion: Misunderstanding the nature of bipolar continuums. Mindfulness, 13(3), 572–576. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-022-01832-8
Neff, K. D. (2023). Self-compassion: Theory, method, research, and intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 74, 193–218. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-032420-031047
Neff, K. D., & Germer, C. K. (2013). A pilot study and randomized controlled trial of the Mindful Self-Compassion program. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 69(1), 28–44. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.21923
Neff, K. D., Long, P., Knox, M. C., Davidson, O., Kuchar, A., Costigan, A., Williamson, Z., Rohleder, N., Tóth-Király, I., & Breines, J. G. (2018). The forest and the trees: Examining the association of self-compassion and its positive and negative components with psychological functioning. Self and Identity, 17(6), 627–645. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2018.1436587
Neff, K. D., Tóth-Király, I., Knox, M. C., Kuchar, A., & Davidson, O. (2021). The development and validation of the State Self-Compassion Scale (Long- and Short Form). Mindfulness, 12(1), 121–140. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-020-01505-4
Neff, K. D., Tóth-Király, I., Yarnell, L. M., Arimitsu, K., Castilho, P., Ghorbani, N., Guo, H. X., Hirsch, J. K., Hupfeld, J., Hutz, C. S., Kotsou, I., Lee, W. K., Montero-Marin, J., Sirois, F. M., de Souza, L. K., Svendsen, J. L., Wilkinson, R. B., & Mantzios, M. (2019). Examining the factor structure of the Self-Compassion Scale in 20 diverse samples: Support for use of a total score and six subscale scores. Psychological Assessment, 31(1), 27–45. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000629
Nunnally, J. (1978). Psychometric methods. McGraw-Hill.
Pastor, D. A., Barron, K. E., Miller, B. J., & Davis, S. L. (2007). A latent profile analysis of college students’ achievement goal orientation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 32(1), 8–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2006.10.003
Phillips, W. J. (2021). Self-compassion mindsets: The components of the self-compassion scale operate as a balanced system within individuals. Current Psychology, 40(10), 5040–5053. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-00452-1
Rosenberger, N. R. (1989). Dialectic balance in the polar model of self: The Japan case. Ethos, 17(1), 88–113. https://doi.org/10.1525/eth.1989.17.1.02a00050
Spencer-Rodgers, J., Peng, K., & Wang, L. (2010). Dialecticism and the co-occurrence of positive and negative emotions across cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 41(1), 109–115. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022109349508
Spurk, D., Hirschi, A., Wang, M., Valero, D., & Kauffeld, S. (2020). Latent profile analysis: A review and “how to” guide of its application within vocational behavior research. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 120, 103445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2020.103445
Tóth-Király, I., & Neff, K. D. (2021). Is self-compassion universal? Support for the measurement invariance of the Self-Compassion Scale across populations. Assessment, 28(1), 169–185. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191120926232
Ullrich-French, S., & Cox, A. E. (2020). The use of latent profiles to explore the multi-dimensionality of self-compassion. Mindfulness, 11(6), 1483–1499. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-020-01365-y
Wei, L., Xie, J., Wu, L., Yao, J., Zhu, L., & Liu, A. (2022). Profiles of self-compassion and psychological outcomes in cancer patients. Psycho-Oncology. https://doi.org/10.1002/pon.5931
Wu, Q., Chen, C., Liang, Y., Zhou, N., Cao, H., Du, H., Lin, X., & Chi, P. (2020). Not only the forest and trees but also the ground they are rooted in: Identifying profiles of self-compassion from the perspective of dialecticism. Mindfulness, 11(8), 1967–1977. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-020-01406-6
Wu, L., Schroevers, M. J., & Zhu, L. (2021). Positive self-compassion, self-coldness, and psychological outcomes in college students: A person-centered approach. Mindfulness, 12(10), 2510–2518. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-021-01721-6
Yeung, A., Xie, Q., Huang, X., Hoeppner, B., Jain, F. A., Tan, E. K., Mai, X., Mischoulon, D., & Guo, X. (2021). Effectiveness of Mindful Self-Compassion training supported by online peer groups in China: A pilot study. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 27(5), AT6940.
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr. István Tóth-Király for his advice on statistical analyses. This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number JP20K14147.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Yuki Miyagawa: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing, Resources.
Kristin, D. Neff: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing, Resources.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical Approval
This research has been approved by the Institutional Review Board of the affiliated universities of the first and second authors. All procedures performed in this study involving human participants were in accordance with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest with any of the findings published in this manuscript.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Miyagawa, Y., Neff, K.D. How Self-Compassion Operates within Individuals: An Examination of Latent Profiles of State Self-Compassion in the U.S. and Japan. Mindfulness 14, 1371–1382 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-023-02143-2
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-023-02143-2